CFD analysis of PWR core top and reactor vessel upper plenum internal subdomain models

One aspect of the Westinghouse AP1000™¹ reactor design is the reduction in the number of major components and simplification in manufacturing. One design change relative to current Westinghouse reactors of similar size is that AP1000 reactor vessel has two nozzles/hot legs instead of three. With regard to fuel performance, this design difference creates a different flow field in the reactor vessel upper plenum. The flow exiting from the core and entering the upper plenum must turn toward one of the two outlet nozzles and flow laterally around numerous control rod guide tubes and support columns. Also, below the upper plenum are the upper core plate and the top core region of the 157 fuel assemblies and 69 guidetube assemblies.To determine how the lateral flow in the top of the core and upper plenum compares to the current reactors a CFD model of the flow in the upper portion of the AP1000 reactor vessel was created.Before detailed CFD simulations of the flow in the entire upper plenum and top core regions were performed, conducting local simulations for smaller sections of the domain provided crucial and detailed physical aspects of the flow. These sub-domain models were used to perform mesh sensitivities and to assess what geometrical details may be eliminated from the larger model in order to reduce mesh size and computational requirements. In this paper, CFD analysis is presented for two subdomain models: the top core region and control rod guide tube region. These models are chosen for simulation because guide tube and top core region (including top grid, top nozzle, and hold-down device) are the major components of upper plenum effecting the flow patterns and pressure distribution.The top core region, corresponding to ¼ of fuel assembly, includes components as upper part of the fuel assemblies (top grid, fuel rods, top nozzle), core component hold-down devices, and upper core plates. These components distribute the core flow to different sections of guidetube regions. Mesh sensitivity studies have been conducted for each individual part in order to determine the proper geometrical simplifications. Pressure drop measurement data are compared with the predicted CFD results and act as a guideline for the mesh selection.The guidetube region includes control rod guidetubes themselves, adjacent support columns and open regions. In this study, two models of subdomains are analyzed: (1) a ¼ section of one control rod guide tube by itself and (2) a representative unit cell containing two ¼ sections of adjacent control rod guide tubes and one ¼ section of a neighboring support column.Predicted flow rates at each of the outflow locations in conjunction with results from the mesh sensitivity studies provide guidance on (1) what geometry to preserve or remove, (2) what geometry can be simplified to reduce the required mesh, and (3) an estimate of the total mesh required to model the entire upper plenum and top fuel domain.The commercial CFD code STAR-CCM+ is employed to generate the computational mesh, to solve the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations for incompressible flow with a Realizable k–? turbulence model, and to post-process the results.     

Hydraulic design of sparger arrangement for long guide tubes of a fast breeder reactor

In liquid metal cooled fast reactors, the core is submerged in sodium pool by ∼5 m below sodium free surface. This necessitates the control and shutdown of reactor be achieved by long overhanging mechanisms housed inside a control plug. These mechanisms are protected by porous guide tubes with a sparger type arrangement for the sodium flow through them. Comprehensive knowledge of flow distribution of sodium through these guide tubes is essential to assess the risks of flow induced vibration of thin thermowell tubes that pass close to these shroud tubes and entrainment of cover gas due to high free surface velocities. Three dimensional hydraulic analysis of single isolated shroud tube and integrated assembly of shroud tubes have been carried out using CFD tools to acquire this knowledge. The predictions of the CFD models have been validated against experimental predictions. These studies have provided important information regarding critical design parameters. Size of holes in the shroud tube, location of holes in the control plug shell and arrangement for breaking sodium jets emanating from shroud tubes have been optimized to reduce free surface velocity.     

Evaluation of fluid flow in the lower core of a PWR with Code_Saturne

In order to better understand the stresses to which fuel rods are subjected, we need to improve our knowledge of the fluid flow inside the core. The first spacer grid region is of particular interest, as fuel rod fretting has sometimes been observed at that level. Entry conditions depend on the geometry of the lower core plate and of the assembly nozzles. Distribution of flow in the downcomer and lower plenum is also a factor. A series of calculations are thus run with the incompressible Navier–Stokes solver, Code_Saturne, using a classical RANS turbulence model. The first calculations involve a global geometry, including part of the cold legs, downcomer, lower plenum, and lower core of a pressurized water reactor. The level of detail includes most obstacles below the core. The lower core plate and the fuel rod assemblies above it cannot be well represented within a practical mesh size, so that a head loss model is used. Different types of assemblies can be represented through different head loss coefficients. We make full use of Code_Saturne’s non-conforming mesh possibilities to represent a complex geometry, being careful to retain a good mesh quality. Steady-state or near steady-state results are obtained, which may be used as realistic entry conditions for full core calculations at assembly width resolution, and beyond those, mechanical strain calculations. We are especially interested in more detailed flow conditions and in the lower core area, so as in the future to quantify vibrational input. This requires a much higher resolution, which is limited to a scale of a few assemblies for practical reasons. At this scale, most of the features of the fuel rods, nozzles, and guide tubes are represented, though the geometry of the spacer grids is still much simplified, and details such as debris-trapping grids are ignored. Different meshes are used for different fuel types. For the moment, a constant velocity upstream of the lower core plate is used as an inlet condition. We have also built a small lower fuel rod assembly mock-up (1/5 scale 7 × 7 tube, 3 × 3 assemblies) with which we plan to obtain detailed flow information, and better qualify the use of our CFD codes with regards to this type of application.     

控制棒导向管外流道旁流特性实验研究

冷却剂流经核反应堆堆芯时,绝大部分通过燃料组件内部流过,带走裂变能量。另外一小部分作为旁流经过燃料组件外侧流道、控制棒导向管外侧及内侧流道流出。为确保反应堆在正常运行工况下的安全性,必须限制堆芯旁流流量。本文通过开展导向管外侧流道阻力特性实验研究,在不同流量工况下获得了分段压差,并进一步拟合了雷诺数与阻力系数的关系式。实验结果表明,导向管外侧流道压力损失主要集中在堆芯下栅格板处,当反应堆额定工况运行时,单组导向管外侧流量仅为0.196 m³/h。     

Modelling of PWR cladding corrosion in mixed core situations

In this paper a thermal-hydraulic model for cladding corrosion recently developed in ABB Atom and used in the code is presented. The features of the model are a subchannel geometry which consists of a 3 × 3 matrix of rods, and modelling of coolant cross-flow and coolant enthalpy mixing. The thermal-hydraulic model is benchmarked against the code, which is a 3D code for analysing the thermalhydraulics of a reactor core. In addition, results of model calculations are compared with corrosion data obtained in mixed core situations, i.e. situations where the fuel assemblies in the core have different designs (e.g. different grid and nozzle designs). Fuel assembly components in assemblies of different designs usually have unequal flow resistances. These differences result in transverse pressure gradients, which in turn increase the lateral flow velocity and thus affect the cociant mass flow rate distribution. Two different situations where this type of mismatch between fuel assemblies in the Ringhals 3 core have occurred are studied in this paper. In the first case a reload batch of fuel assemblies, with Zircaloy mixing vane grids, inserted in a core where the resident fuel assemblies have Inconel mixing vane grids is considered. In the second case cladding tubes from the same manufacturing lot that have been irradiated for the same period of time but have been situated in fuel assemblies with Zircaloy mixing vane grids of different designs are considered. The results manifest the capability of the code to model the effects of flow resistance on cladding corrosion.     

Stochastic analysis of mechanical vibrations in reactors

A FORTRAN code VIBRPI has been developed to compute the generalized cross power spectral density matrix for linear motions of a mechanical system with N connected elements. The code is applied to analysis of the parallel flow and cross flow induced vibrations of BWR instrument guide tubes. The guide tubes, and the neutron detectors contained in them, are regarded as probes to investigate the properties of the flow and the mechanical system. The computations are compared to noise measurements made on operating BWRs. Added mass and drag coefficients are inferred as are parameters of the cross flow induced effect.     

自然循环工况非对称U型管的倒流特性研究

自然循环工况蒸汽发生器部分U型管可发生倒流。为缓解倒流,本文提出一种非对称U型管的初步设计方案,采用理论分析和数值模拟的方法对自然循环工况非对称U型管的倒流特性进行研究,建立非对称U型管流量 压降关系模型进行理论分析。针对某型核动力装置建立非对称U型管计算模型与系统分析模型,利用RELAP5/MOD32程序对不同优化方案的运行特性进行数值模拟,结果表明：增大非对称U型管的下降段与上升段的高度差,发生倒流的U型管组数减少,自然循环总流量增加。在二次侧非能动余热排出工况,非对称U型管对倒流有更为明显的缓减作用。     

Single-pass core design of a low-temperature Super LWR

A supercritical-pressure light water cooled and moderated reactor (Super LWR) with a single-pass flow scheme is developed for simplifying upper core structures. Both coolant in the fuel channels and the water rods flow upward and are mixed in the upper plenum. It eliminates the moderator guide/distribution tubes in the upper core that were used in the previous Super LWR design adopting two-pass coolant flow scheme. This core design adopts a four-batch fuel management scheme and an out–in fuel loading pattern. One hundred and twenty-one fuel assemblies with an active height of 3.7 m are included. The flow rate fraction for water rods is 3.5%, and the thermal insulator is used to keep the moderator temperature below pseudocritical temperature. The equilibrium core is analyzed by using neutronic and thermal-hydraulic coupled calculation. The results show that the maximum cladding surface temperature (MCST) is limited to 485 °C with the average outlet temperature of 400 °C. The inherent safety is fulfilled by the positive water density reactivity coefficient and sufficient shutdown margin. On the other hand, the investigation of average outlet coolant temperature varying with MCST is carried out to explore the maximum outlet temperature by employing current MCST criterion and single-pass core design. The average outlet temperature increases with the MCST, and it achieves 465 °C with the thermal efficiency of 43.1% at the MCST criterion of 650 °C. The structure inside the reactor pressure vessel is simplified as a pressurized water reactor.     

压水堆上腔室流场的实验研究

ＰＷＲ作为核电发展的主要堆型，在全世界范围内得到了广泛的应用，也是我国的主要发展堆型。但是对关系到反应堆安全运行的、直接作用在控制棒导向筒上的上腔室流场的分析研究，长期以来由于紊流流动机制的复杂性和上腔室中控制棒导向筒组件布置的密集性，这方面的研究一直没有深入下去。在压水堆运行期间，作用在上腔室构件上的作用力与冷却剂的流动特性有很大的关系，通过模拟实验弄清上腔室的流速分布，对了解作用在控制棒上的水力载荷，以及控制棒能否按指令在导向筒内自由升降和快速下插具有十分重要的意义。本文在３００ＭＷｅ核电站ＰＷＲ上腔室１：４可视化模拟体中，以水为介质进行了上腔室流场的可视化实验研究。采用激光多普勒测速仪（ＬＤＶ）和Ｎ－Ｊ型应变片式测速仪测得了上腔室模拟体中的流速，并用归一化的数据处理方法，显示了整个流场的流速分布规律，找出了整个流速的最大区和最大值。从而为控制棒导向筒的结构力学分析和ＰＷＲ上腔室的数值模拟分析提供实验依据。     

Model experimentation and analysis of flow-induced vibrations of PWR internals

In a PWR the reactor coolant flow that goes through the reactor internals and the fuel assemblies is characterized by high turbulence and this flow is able to induce some structural vibration. A few years ago, some nuclear power plants were obliged to shut down for many months, due to the heavy damage caused by vibration. The design of reactors must be carefully checked taking into account the possible interaction between hydraulic excitation and reactor structure response. The reactor assembly of a PWR consists of: (1) a reactor vessel which withstands the internal pressure of the primary fluid and maintains the reactor core; (2) reactor internals which maintain fuel assemblies, guide the control rods and wear a thermal shield in order to reduce the fast neutron exposure of the reactor vessel wall; and (3) fuel assemblies and control rods.The SAFRAN test loop consists of a reduced-scale ( ) model of a reactor vessel, reactor internals, dummies representing fuel assemblies and a system of three loops including pumps and damping tanks connected to the reactor vessel, the purpose of which is to simulate the flow distribution of a three-loop PWR. The scaling laws for designing the model and the test loop are: same geometry and attachment conditions; same flow velocity: V model = V reactor; same Cauchy number, i.e. same ratio of inertia forces to stiffness forces; and same Euler number, i.e. same ratio of inertia forces to pressure forces. Nevertheless, it is not possible to use the same Reynolds number. The ratio between the Reynolds number of the reactor and the Reynolds number of the model, for the same fluid velocity, is 70. This is mainly due to scale ratio and to the viscosity of the fluid in the hot condition. But in most cases, we are above the critical values of Reynolds number where there is a variation of the Strouhal number S = ƒD/V. The measured frequencies in the model will be eight times the frequencies occurring in the reactor. In general, the construction technology used for the model is the same as that used for the reactor. All the structures in contact with the fluid are made of stainless steel. The instrumentation used on the SAFRAN test loop consists of accelerometers, pressure sensors and relative displacement sensors.Vibration phenomena are studied using two different approaches. In the first approach, the vibration properties of the structure are measured by means of tests performed in air and water to obtain, in both cases, frequencies, modes, damping and stiffness values. The hydraulic excitation sources are measured by tests on the loop: frequencies, Δp values, direct- and cross-correlation lengths. During these tests, structures are stiffened in order to prevent their motion. By means of a computer program based on the POWELL method, the structural response can be calculated according to the density of Δp distributed around the structure. The second approach consists of measuring directly the structural response to hydraulic excitations. Comparison of the results given by these two approaches shows: (a) the system non-linearities and (b) the coupling between the fluid and the structure. By using two different approaches a better knowledge of complex phenomena can be gained.     

SENHOR-IV: A computer code for small pipe-break analysis of pressure-tube type reactors

A computer program SENHOR-IV was developed which describes blowdown phenomena associated with a small pipe-break accident in pressure-tube type reactors. Thermal-hydraulic transients of single-phase and two-phase flow in a primary cooling system, which is composed of the pressure tubes, a steam drum, downcomers, a lower header and pipings connecting these components, were calculated from the conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy by assuming pressure propagation and flow rate distribution to be quasi-steady and by applying the method of characteristics to enthalpy transport. The void propagation velocity in two-phase flow was given from Smith's equation for void-quality relationship to the program. Calculation of a flow transient, which has an exact solution, with use of this program showed small deviations from the exact solution. Predicted transients of pressure and water level in the steam drum indicated a good agreement with those observed in a full scale test facility at O-arai Engineering Center.     

FRAMATOME's continous efforts to improve steam generator corrosion resistance

The steam generators of PWR nuclear reactors are among the primary components most affected by corrosion problems. Corrosion of the steam generator tubes, which assure heat transfer between the primary and secondary circuits, have been observed on a large number of operating steam generators, especially in the United States. According to an NRC survey, as of November 1981, forty PWR units with steam generators of the recirculation type were in operation in the US. Of these, 32 have been found to have one or more forms of tube degradation.Construction of the French PWR nuclear program started in the early 70s, at the time a number of operating plants in the US were being affected by the first corrosion problems. Since, at that time, its construction program was in an early stage, FRAMATOME was able to make modifications on the first units to improve steam generator resistance to corrosion. For instance, full depth expansion of the tubes in the tube-sheet using an explosive process (Westex) was performed on Fessenheim 1 steam generators already installed on site. Later on, continuous operating experience was being obtained in the US, before startup of the French units. This allowed FRAMATOME to react rapidly and take immediate corrective actions at the design stage, during fabrication and sometimes even on site in order to mitigate the risk of corrosion in the steam generators.FRAMTOME is confident that the present design of its steam generator models, including a large number of major improvements is adequate to prevent major corrosion problems to occur during operation. However, the company has embarked on an important development program to further improve the corrosion resistance and thereby the reliability of its steam generators. This program includes studies on new tube expansion techniques, alternate materials for steam generator tubes (Inconel 690), improved tube inspection methods, local thermohydraulic flow, tube vibrations, etc.     

CPR1000核电厂蒸汽发生器排污系统频繁隔离原因分析与优化措施

中国改进型三环路压水堆（CPR1000）核电厂蒸汽发生器排污系统（APG）在正常运行期间频繁自动隔离,结合此隔离事件运行背景对事件原因进行了分类研究,并对APG进行了相应优化。具体措施为对冷却水温度控制器增加了微分环节并优化了控制参数;对排污水流量控制回路增加了前馈环节以消除扰动;对排污水流量计和压力开关信号下游增加了相应延时环节;对启机阶段运行程序进行了适应性修改。某核电厂实际运行经验证明,优化后的APG运行情况良好,自动隔离事件大幅减少,运行维护成本有效较低。      

小型模块式反应堆螺旋管蒸汽发生器设计和热工水力分析

近年来,国际上一体化小型模块式反应堆发展飞速,我国也正在加速研制一体化小型模块式反应堆。本文针对15 MW的一体化小型模块式反应堆,设计一种螺旋管式蒸汽发生器,共12个蒸汽发生器组件均匀分布在反应堆堆芯围板外侧和压力容器内侧壁的环形空间中,每个组件含5层、25根螺旋管,整个蒸汽发生器共300根螺旋管。给出了蒸汽发生器的具体参数,分析了蒸汽发生器组件中换热系数、温度、温差和热流密度等沿管长的变化,并给出了螺旋管内流体的动力特性曲线。     

Measurement and analysis of the elongation of Zircaloy-2 pressure tubes in pickering generating station units 1 and 2

Zirconium alloy components in the core of CANDU ^* reactors change shape as a result of neutron irradiation. Dimensional changes in the pressure tubes of the reactors at the Pickering Generation Station have been measured as part of the general maintenance program carried out by Ontario Hydro. The techniques used to measure pressure tube elongation, and the results obtained for Pickering units 1 and 2 over the past six years, are presented. The data are interpreted using a detailed analysis which accounts for the manner in which the elongating pressure tubes interact with the calandria tubes and end shields of the reactor. The free elongation rate obtained from the analysis has been used, with other pressure tube data, to calculate the material dependent constants in the equations which define irradiation enhanced creep and growth in the cold-worked Zircaloy-2 pressure tubes of the Pickering unit 1 and 2 reactors.     

Investigation on Slit Jet through Upper Internal Structure (UIS) in Highly Compact Vessel of Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor

An advanced loop-type sodium-cooled fast reactor has been developed by the Japan Atomic Energy Agency. The upper internal structure (UIS) above the core is a key component where control rod guide tubes are housed. A radial slit is set in the UIS to simplify the fuel-handling system and to reduce the reactor vessel diameter. A high-velocity upward flow is formed in the UIS slit. This slit jet influences thermal hydraulic issues in the reactor vessel. A water experiment was carried out to understand the flow field in the UIS, which is composed of the control rod guide tubes and several horizontal perforated plates with a slit. A refractive index matching method was applied to visualize the flow in such a complex geometry. Velocity measurement using particle image velocimetry showed that the velocity in the UIS slit was accelerated by the multiple slits and kept at a high value at the mid-height of the reactor upper plenum. A numerical simulation was carried out for this complex geometry of the UIS to obtain an adequate simulation method. A comparison between the experimental and analytical velocity profiles showed that the numerical simulation is highly applicable.     

物理模型及边界条件对直流蒸发管两相流不稳定性边界影响研究

本文研究不同边界条件及物理模型对两相流不稳定性边界的影响。采用RELAP5程序模拟直流蒸发管内的两相流不稳定性实验工况,对计算程序和模型进行验证,分析恒定流量及恒定压降两种边界条件、并联管数量、轴向功率分布形式和传热管热容等不同边界条件和物理模型对不稳定性边界的影响。结果表明：恒定压降边界条件下,单根管、2根并联管和多根并联管的不稳定性边界差别小于5%;恒定流量边界条件下,多根并联管不稳定性边界和2根并联管相比差别小于5%,而与单根管不稳定性边界的差别则超过100%;并联管根数相同时,恒定流量边界条件的稳定性好于恒定压降边界条件;沿流动方向（轴向）功率递增分布时,系统稳定性好于沿流动方向功率均匀分布,沿流动方向功率均匀分布时,系统稳定性好于沿流动方向功率递减分布;当管壁厚度为0~20 mm时,管壁热容对不稳定性边界几乎没有影响。     

Control of a High Temperature Supercritical Pressure Light Water Cooled and Moderated Reactor with Water Rods

The plant system of a supercritical pressure light water reactor (SCR) is once-through direct cycle. The whole coolant from the feedwater pumps is driven to the turbines. The core flow rate is less than 1/7 of that of a boiling water reactor. In the present design of the high temperature thermal reactor (SCLWR-H), the fuel assemblies contain many water rods in which the coolant flows downward. The stepwise responses of the SCLWR-H are analyzed against perturbations without a control system. Based on these analyses, a control system of the SCLWR-H is designed. The pressure is controlled by the turbine control valves. The main steam temperature is controlled by the feedwater pumps. The reactor power is controlled by the control rods. The control parameters are optimized by the test calculations to satisfy the criteria of both fast convergence and stability. The reactor is controlled stably with the designed control systems against various perturbations, such as setpoint change of the pressure, the main steam temperature and the core power, decrease in the feedwater temperature, and decrease in the feedwater flow rate.     

核燃料

在法国核然料工业组织中,法杰马公司主要销售燃料组件。法比燃料公司(FBFC)的3个从属工厂都负责燃料组件的制造,该公司每年生产装铀量为1500t 的燃料组件。自1985年以来,法杰马公司又销售先进燃料组件(AFA)。该 AFA 的主要特点是使用了锆合金定位格架和可拆式上、下管嘴。大亚湾核电站要用的燃料组件正是该种与一般组件不同的先进燃料组件。法杰马公司采用钆作可燃毒物,以保证燃料组件的良好特性。近来该公司又推出混合氧化物燃料组件(MOX)。由于法杰马公司在设计和制造的各阶段都严格遵守了质量保证和质量控制制度,所以其产品质量优良、可靠性好。展望未来,法杰马公司将与法国核燃料工业中的其它集团一起,努力为用户提供尽可能好的产品。     

Numerical Analysis of the Lifting Beam's Influence on Flow Fields in Planar Fuel Assemblies

This study used the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) program CFX5 to investigate the flow field in planar fuel assemblies with two types of lifting beams, and to determine the effect of the two types of lifting beams on the flow field in planar fuel assemblies. This information is helpful in optimizing the design of a planar fuel assembly. The results indicated that the first type of lifting beam had a similar effect on the planar fuel assembly as the other type, the flow distribution in narrow flow channels between fuel plates with the first lifting beam was similar to the other, and the pressure difference of the inlet and outlet of the planar fuel assembly was also similar for the two types of lifting beams. The results also indicated that the two types of lifting beams' effect on the flow field in narrow flow channels between fuel plates is small, so either of the lifting beams could be used in the planar fuel assembly's design.