A numerical study of THM effects on the near-field safety of a hypothetical nuclear waste repository—BMT1 of the DECOVALEX III project. Part 3: Effects of THM coupling in sparsely fractured rocks

As a part of the international DECOVALEX III project, and the European BENCHPAR project, the impact of thermal–hydrological–mechanical (THM) couplings on the performance of a bentonite-back-filled nuclear waste repository in near-field crystalline rocks is evaluated in a Bench-Mark Test problem (BMT1) and the results are presented in a series of three companion papers in this issue. This is the third paper with focuses on the effects of THM processes at a repository located in a sparsely fractured rock. Several independent coupled THM analyses presented in this paper show that THM couplings have the most significant impact on the mechanical stress evolution, which is important for repository design, construction and post-closure monitoring considerations. The results show that the stress evolution in the bentonite-back-filled excavations and the surrounding rock depends on the post-closure evolution of both fields of temperature and fluid pressure. It is further shown that the time required to full resaturation may play an important role for the mechanical integrity of the repository drifts. In this sense, the presence of hydraulically conducting fractures in the near-field rock might actually improve the mechanical performance of the repository. Hydraulically conducting fractures in the near-field rocks enhances the water supply to the buffers/back-fills, which promotes a more timely process of resaturation and development of swelling pressures in the back-fill, thus provides timely confining stress and support to the rock walls. In one particular case simulated in this study, it was shown that failure in the drift walls could be prevented if the compressive stresses in back-fill were fully developed within 50 yr, which is when thermally induced rock strain begins to create high differential (failure-prone) stresses in the near-field rocks.     

Coupled T–H–M issues relating to radioactive waste repository design and performance

In this paper, coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) issues relating to nuclear waste repository design and performance are reviewed. Concise statements, that were developed from DECOVALEX discussions, on the current state-of-knowledge are presented. Section 1 describes the THM background and the interface with performance assessment (PA). The role of THM issues in the overall repository design context is amplified in Section 2, which includes a review of the processes in terms of repository excavation, operation and post-closure stages. It is important to understand the overall context, the detailed THM issues, the associated modelling and how these issues will be resolved in the wider framework. Also, because uncoupled and coupled numerical codes have been used for this subject, there is discussion in Section 3 on the nature of the codes and how the content of the codes can be audited. To what extent does a particular code capture the essence of the problem in hand? Consideration is also given to the associated question of code selection and the future of numerical codes. The state-of-knowledge statements are presented in Section 4 under 11 headings which follow the repository design sequence. The overview conclusion is that “A predictive THM capability is required to support repository design because precedent practice information is insufficient. Many aspects of THM processes and modelling are now well understood and there is a variety of numerical codes available to provide solutions for different host rock and repository conditions. However, modelling all the THM mechanisms in space and time is extremely complex and simplifications will have to be made — if only because it is not possible to obtain all the necessary detailed supporting information. Therefore, an important step is to clarify the THM modelling requirement within the PA context. This will help to indicate the complexity of THM modelling required and hence the models, mechanisms, type of computing, supporting data, laboratory and in situ testing, etc. required. An associated transparent and open audit trail should be developed.” We also include comments from reviewers and highlight four outstanding issues which are currently being studied in the DECOVALEX III programme.     

核废料处置库近场热-水-力耦合性状

采用高放射性核废料处置库模型试验,以核废料处置库近场的膨润土及岩石为研究对象,建立轴对称模型,选用适当的热、水、力本构方程,运用有限元软件code-bright对核废料处置库关闭后处置库近场的温度场、渗流场、应力场进行考虑TH, HM, TM部分耦合与THM完全耦合的数值模拟分析。得到处置库关闭后近场膨润土及岩石内温度、液体饱和度、应力的变化规律及不同耦合对这些性状影响的敏感度。结果可为核废料处置库的规划、设计以及数值分析时耦合类型的选择提供参考。     

The DECOVALEX III project: A summary of activities and lessons learned

Initiated in 1992, the DECOVALEX project is an international collaboration for advancing the understanding and modeling of coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) processes in geologic systems. The project has made important scientific achievements through three stages and is progressing in its fourth stage. It has played a key role in the development of mathematical modeling and in situ testing of coupled THM processes in fractured rock and buffer/backfill materials, a subject of importance for performance assessment of radioactive waste geologic repositories. This paper summarizes studies under the most recent stage of the project, DECOVALEX III (2000–2003). These studies include those of two major field experiments: (a) the FEBEX experiment at Grimsel, Switzerland, investigating coupled THM processes in a crystalline rock-bentonite system, and (b) the Drift Scale Test (DST) experiment at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, investigating coupled THM processes in unsaturated tuff. These are two of the largest multiyear heater tests undertaken to date for the study of coupled THM processes in geological systems. In addition, three so-called benchmark tests are also studied to evaluate the impact of coupled THM processes under different scenarios and geometries. Within the DECOVALEX project, multiple research teams participated in each of the studies, using different approaches and computer codes. Comparisons of results have provided insight into coupled THM processes, which in turn has stimulated further development of our modeling capabilities. Lessons learned from these studies are discussed. The scientific advances and enhanced insight gained through this kind of international cooperation illustrate the effectiveness of the DECOVALEX project.     

Sealing of fractures in claystone

The sealing behavior of fractures in clay rocks for deep disposal of radioactive waste has been comprehensively investigated at the GRS laboratory. Various sealing experiments were performed on strongly cracked samples of different sizes from the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite and the Opalinus clay under relevant repository conditions. The fractured samples were compacted and flowed through with gas or synthetic pore-water under confining stresses up to 18 MPa and elevated temperatures from 20 °C to 90 °C. Sealing of fractures was quantified by measurements of their closure and permeability. Under the applied thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) conditions, significant fracture closure and permeability decrease to very low levels of 10^?19 to 10^?21 m² were observed within time periods of months to years. The properties of the resealed claystones are comparable with those of the intact rock mass. All test results suggest high sealing potentials of the studied claystones.     

Simulations of THM processes in buffer-rock barriers of high-level waste disposal in an argillaceous formation

The main objective of this paper is to investigate and analyse the thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) coupling phenomena and their influences on the repository safety. In this paper, the high-level waste (HLW) disposal concept in drifts in clay formation with backfilled bentonite buffer is represented numerically using the CODE_BRIGHT developed by the Technical University of Catalonia in Barcelona. The parameters of clay and bentonite used in the simulation are determined by laboratory and in situ experiments. The calculation results are presented to show the hydro-mechanical (HM) processes during the operation phase and the THM processes in the after-closure phase. According to the simulation results, the most probable critical processes for the disposal project have been represented and analyzed. The work also provides an input for additional development regarding the design, assessment and validation of the HLW disposal concept.     

比利时高放废物处置库设计及与基岩和工程屏障体系的热-水-力性状的相关研究

在比利时，泥岩中地质处置是高放废物最终处置的首选，处置库在高放废物与生物圈之间的多重屏障基础上设计的，而Boom泥岩作为基岩的研究已有20多年历史，1980年比利时做出重大决定，建立名为HADES的地下研究机构，以研究Boom泥岩在地下223m处的力学性质，并调查和论证处置的可行性，为处置库屏障（天然和人工）提供可靠数据，在HADES的众多现场试验中很多试验用来对基岩和工程屏障体系（包括封口和回填的可行性）热-水-力性状进行研究，包括CACTUS，ATLAS，BACCHUS和RESEAL等项目。自1995年以来，研究开发计划向大型和示范性试验方向发展。最主要成果是运用工业技术建立地下研究设施（竖井和井巷）可行性得到了验证，且这种工业技术给研究提供一个较好机会，便于进一步认识基岩泥岩（CLIPEX方案）的水-力性状及了解隧道开挖工程（SELFRAC课题）对挖掘破坏区的影响，另一个重大成果是成功地实现对一种称为“OPHELE”的预掉膨润土（人工屏障材料）加热和水化地面大型试验。下一步工作内容包括实现大尺寸现场加热器试验（PRACLAY试验），此试验预计于2006年开始，并可持续10a之久，据此，首先简要描述比利时高效废物处置库设计，然后回顾Boom泥岩和工程屏障体系的热-水-力性状相关试验，最后介绍下一步大规模PRACLAY试验。     

DECOVALEX_IV TASK_D项目的热-水-力耦合过程的数值模拟

核废料地下处置系统研究的国际合作项目DECOVALEX(development of coupled models and their validation against experiments) 致力于高放射性核废料地质处置系统围岩中多个物理场的耦合过程研究和工程屏障的可行性评估.中国研究小组第一次参加DECOVALEX计划.介绍了其子课题Task_D的情况和阶段性研究结果,包括2种处置方式--瑞士FEBEX和美国Yucca Mountain类型的1×104 a以上的预测模拟及其比较分析.建立一套复杂的非饱和多孔介质中热液力(THM)耦合过程的非等温流动和形变控制方程,涉及到固、液、气三相和四种组分(固体骨架,水,干空气和水蒸汽).其表现为相对独立同时又相互交叠的4类模型(1) 考虑有效应力、热膨胀应力和膨润土的水膨胀应力变形模型;(2) 考虑水与蒸汽在蒸发凝结时物质交换的流动模型;(3) 包含蒸汽/干空气相对运动的蒸汽分子扩散和对流模型;(4) 三相局部非等温过程的热交换模型.在此基础上根据Task_D的设定要求简化为较为实用的方程,并发展了相应的程序对1×106 a THM耦合行为进行了预测模拟,其结果在2005年2月Task_D讨论会和DECOVALEX工作会议与多个国家相互独立的研究结果进行对比,吻合程度很高,这给模型的建立和程序发展都带来了信心.     

Modification of thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model for soft rock and its application to THM analysis of heating tests

In deep geological disposal for high level radioactive waste, one of the most important factors is to study the thermo-hydraulic-mechanical (THM) behavior of the natural barrier, usually a host rock, during the heat process and hydraulic environment change. In this paper, a thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model proposed by Zhang and Zhang (2009) is firstly modified by adopting the t_ij concept (Nakai and Mihara, 1984) so that the influence of intermediate stress can be properly considered. The performance of the modified model is confirmed with drained triaxial compression tests and creep tests on soft sedimentary rock and manmade soft rock under different temperatures. Based on the modified model, a program called ‘SOFT’, using the finite element method (FEM) and the finite difference method (FDM) in the soil–water–heat coupling problem, has been developed to simulate the aforementioned THM behavior of geological materials. In order to verify the applicability of the program, an isotropic element heating test for soft rock under drained condition with different initial overconsolidation ratio (OCR), is firstly simulated by the proposed THM FE-FD program. In the test, the thermal volumetric change was found to be dependent on OCR. The simulated results show that the THM phenomenon observed in the laboratory test can be explained by the proposed numerical method. Meanwhile, a real-scale field heating test reported by Gens et al. (2007) is also simulated by the same THM FE-FD program. The material parameters of the rock involved in the constitutive model are determined based on the element tests for the rock in the laboratory. It is shown that the simulated results agreed well with the test results such as the time change of the temperature, the excess pore water pressure (EPWP) and the heat-induced strain.     

Experiments on thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of Opalinus Clay at Mont Terri rock laboratory,Switzerland

Repositories for deep geological disposal of radioactive waste rely on multi-barrier systems to isolate waste from the biosphere.A multi-barrier system typically comprises the natural geological barrier provided by the repository host rock e in our case the Opalinus Clay e and an engineered barrier system(EBS).The Swiss repository concept for spent fuel and vitrified high-level waste(HLW)consists of waste canisters,which are emplaced horizontally in the middle of an emplacement gallery and are separated from the gallery wall by granular backfill material(GBM).We describe here a selection of five in-situ experiments where characteristic hydro-mechanical(HM)and thermo-hydro-mechanical(THM)processes have been observed.The first example is a coupled HM and mine-by test where the evolution of the excavation damaged zone(EDZ)was monitored around a gallery in the Opalinus Clay(ED-B experiment).Measurements of pore-water pressures and convergences due to stress redistribution during excavation highlighted the HM behaviour.The same measurements were subsequently carried out in a heater test(HE-D)where we were able to characterise the Opalinus Clay in terms of its THM behaviour.These yielded detailed data to better understand the THM behaviours of the granular backfill and the natural host rock.For a presentation of the Swiss concept for HLW storage,we designed three demonstration experiments that were subsequently implemented in the Mont Terri rock laboratory:(1)the engineered barrier(EB)experiment,(2)the in-situ heater test on key-THM processes and parameters(HE-E)experiment,and(3)the full-scale emplacement(FE)experiment.The first demonstration experiment has been dismantled,but the last two ones are on-going.     

缓冲材料热-水-力耦合模型试验研究

高放废物深地质处置采用多重屏障设计体系,缓冲材料是位于废物罐和围岩之间的一道重要的人工屏障。在放射性衰变热、地下水入侵和围岩应力等作用下,缓冲材料经历复杂的热-水-力耦合过程,评价其长期性能对高放废物地质处置库的稳定运行至关重要。缓冲材料模型试验是研究膨润土在多场耦合环境下性能变化的重要途径。中型实验台架是大型实验台架(China-Mock-up)的重要补充,用来模拟与大型实验台架边界相同的环境下,即热量和水分别从缓冲材料的不同侧向另一侧传递和渗透的条件下膨润土的行为特征。通过实时监测缓冲材料在长期加热和加水条件下的温度、相对湿度、力学等特征参数,揭示了在热-水-力耦合条件下缓冲材料的性能变化规律,同时对台架进行了拆解,对拆解样品的含水量、干密度和微观结构等进行了分析测试,研究结果可为高放废物处置库缓冲材料的工程设计提供参数支持。     

Survey of volatile halogenated organics (VHO) in Italy: Levels of VHO in drinking waters, surface waters and swimming pools

A survey undertaken in Italy (Emilia-Romagna region) has shown that Volatile Halogenated Organics (VHO) are present in many water samples; analysis has been performed by static head-space gas chromatographic technique.In drinking water samples low levels of pollution have become evident before any treatment, while after chlorination with sodium hypochlorite, or chlorine as a gas, VHO have appeared, almost exclusively as trihalomethanes (THM), sometimes at fairly high levels (max = 41.8 μg l⁻¹).Surface water samples have been collected every other month in one year, and have shown different levels of contamination; in most cases VHO (mainly chlorinated solvents) appeared just as traces, seldom at high concentration (max = 263 μg l⁻¹).Swimming pool samples have shown the high levels of contamination (max = 177.4 μg l⁻¹), mainly due to THM, as a consequence of chlorination with sodium hypochlorite.As a matter of fact, it has become evident that VHO pollution is wide-spread in every kind of water; while contamination of surface waters can only involve environmental and aquatic life, contamination especially of drinking waters, and also of swimming pool waters must be controlled as it can directly act on human health.     

Effects of loading rate on rock fracture

By means of a wedge loading applied to a short-rod rock fracture specimen tested with the MTS 810 or SHPB (split Hopkinson pressure bar), the fracture toughness of Fangshan gabbro and Fangshan marble was measured over a wide range of loading rates, =10⁻²–10⁶ MPa m^1/2 s⁻¹. In order to determine the dynamic fracture toughness of the rock as exactly as possible, the dynamic Moiré method and strain–gauge method were used in determining the critical time of dynamic fracture. The testing results indicated that the critical time was generally shorter than the transmitted wave peak time, and the differences between the two times had a weak increasing tendency with loading rates. The experimental results for rock fracture showed that the static fracture toughness K_Ic of the rock was nearly a constant, but the dynamic fracture toughness K_Id of the rock ( ≥10⁴ MPa m^1/2 s⁻¹) increased with the loading rate, i.e. log(K_Id)=a log +b. Macroobservations for fractured rock specimens indicated that, in the section (which was perpendicular to the fracture surface) of a specimen loaded by a dynamic load, there was clear crack branching or bifurcation, and the higher the loading rate was, the more branching cracks occurred. Furthermore, at very high loading rates ( ≥10⁶ MPa m^1/2 s⁻¹) the rock specimen was broken into several fragments rather than only two halves. However, for a statically fractured specimen there was hardly any crack branching. Finally, some applications of this investigation in engineering practice are discussed.     

TIMODAZ: A successful international cooperation project to investigate the thermal impact on the EDZ around a radioactive waste disposal in clay host rocks

Disposal of spent nuclear fuel and long lived radioactive waste in deep clay geological formations is one of the promising options worldwide. In this concept of the geological disposal system, the host clay formation is considered as a principal barrier on which the fulfillment of key safety functions rests. Between 2006 and 2010, the European Commission project TIMODAZ, which gathered 15 partners from 8 countries, has investigated the coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) effects on clay formations for geological disposal of radioactive waste, and specific attention was paid to investigating the thermal effect on the evolution of the damaged zone (DZ). Three types of potential host clay formations were investigated: the Boom Clay (Belgium), the Opalinus Clay (Switzerland) and the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite (France). Intensive experimental (laboratory and in situ in underground research laboratories) and numerical studies have been performed. Multi-scale approach was used in the course of the project. High degree of similarities between the failure modes, sealing process, stress paths, deformation, etc., observed in laboratories and in situ has been obtained, which increased the confidence in the applicability of laboratory test results and up-scaling perspective. The results of the laboratory and in situ tests obtained allowed the parameters for numerical models at various scales to be derived and provided the basis for the simplified performance assessment models that are used to assess the long-term safety of a repository. The good cooperation between the numerical modeler and experimenters has allowed an in-depth analysis of the experimental results and thus better understanding the underlying processes, and consequently increased the capabilities to model the THM effects in claystones. This paper presents the main achievements obtained by TIMODAZ project and shows how a European scientific community investigates a problem of concern in a collaborative way and how the obtained main results are applied to the performance assessment of a geological repository.     

Micromechanical modelling of the mechanical properties of a granite under dynamic uniaxial compressive loads

A micromechanics-based model is used to study the mechanical properties of a granite under dynamic uniaxial compressive loads. The model is based on interacting sliding cracks uniformly distributed in the rock material. A dynamic crack growth criterion, which is related to crack growth velocity and dynamic fracture toughness of the rock material, is employed in the analysis. Under dynamic loads at strain rates from 10⁻⁴ to 10⁰ s⁻¹, the crack growth velocity is small compared to the critical crack growth velocity and the effect can be ignored. The strengths of the granite obtained by micromechanical modelling agree with the experimental results. A constitutive relation of the granite is derived from the energy equilibrium equation and correlated with the experimental results.     

黏土岩温度–渗流–应力耦合作用的长期力学特性研究若干进展

核废料地质处置库长期处于复杂的耦合环境之中,其安全、稳定、高效的建设与运营需要考虑温度场(T)、渗流场(H)、应力场(M)的长期耦合作用。围绕黏土岩多场耦合作用下的长期力学特性,首先总结了国内外在黏土岩温度–渗流–应力耦合条件下长期力学试验研究成果与不足,主要包括HM与THM耦合长期作用对黏土岩渗透特性的影响、黏土岩TM与THM耦合长期力学特性。其次从微观唯相的角度,论述了温度对黏土岩微观结构特征的影响机制。基于上述认识,提出黏土岩THM耦合蠕变力学模型及其适用性。同时,介绍了笔者团队围绕黏土岩THM耦合长期力学特性方面的相关研究成果,结果表明:BoomClay的长期力学特性与温度、孔压、应力和各向异性等因素相关。最后,提出黏土岩THM耦合研究未来应重点关注的方向。     

高放废物工程屏障的热-水-力耦合作用分析

采用多相多类方法，提出热-水-力耦合作用分析的综合模型，分析考虑多孔介质的三相（固，液，气）和三类（矿物，水分，空气）模型，该模型是根据控制方程，本构关系和平衡条件来建立的，并提出用于模拟高放废物地下处置体系和附近场地性状的热-水-力耦合分析通过程序。热-水-力耦合分析可将工程屏障中不同过程间发生的主要相互作用，以及附近岩石的散热和水化现象都考虑进去，通过试验结果的验证，得出一些关于热-水-力方面的重要结论。     

Preliminary studies on the leaching of some trace metals from kitchen faucets

Preliminary studies were carried out on the leaching of copper, zinc, chromium, cadmium and lead from eight kitchen faucets by samples of raw, filtered and distributed Ottawa water, a sample of well water and deionized water containing 2 mg l⁻¹ aqueous fulvic acid. Leaching was effected by allowing the test solutions to stand in the inverted faucets for two successive 24-h periods. Concentrations of the metals found in the leachates were copper: first leaching, 0.12–28.0 mg l⁻¹, second leaching, 0.08-3.54 mg l⁻¹; zinc: first leaching, 0.13-10.25 mg l⁻¹, second leaching, 0.06-2.85 mg l⁻¹; chromium: first leaching, < 1.0 × 10⁻³ − 0.395 mg l⁻¹, second leaching, < 1.0 × 10⁻³−0.032 mg l⁻¹; cadmium: first leaching, < 0.05 × 10⁻³−0.01 mg l⁻¹, second leaching, < 0.05 × 10⁻³−4 × 10⁻³ mg l⁻¹; and lead: first leaching, < 0.2−110.0 mg l⁻¹, second leaching, < 0.2−82.0 mg l⁻¹. The faucets containing lead-soldered copper joints released high concentrations of lead, particularly in the case of leaching with the aqueous fulvic acid solution. Under the conditions of the present investigations it is indicated that in some cases the concentrations of metals leached could lead to intakes in excess of the maximum permissible limits for these metals. However, further investigations will be required to determine the possible contribution of these faucets to metal intake under normal usage.     

The ozonation of organic halide precursors: effect of bicarbonate

A laboratory study of the effect of bicarbonate on the ozonation of organic halide precursors in fulvic acid solutions and in a raw drinking water was conducted. The experimental variables were bicarbonate concentration, ozone dose and pH of chlorination. Results are expressed in terms of trihalomethane (THM), total organic halide (TOX), trichloracetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetone and dichloroacetonitrile precursor concentrations. Kinetic studies showed that bicarbonate slowed the decomposition of ozone in the presence of fulvic acid, and thereby, led to a greater degree of destruction of u.v.-absorbing substances. Similarly, precursor destruction increased with increasing bicarbonate concentrations in the range of 10⁻⁴spd 10⁻² M. Precursor destruction was greatest when chlorination was performed at low pH. At high pH's of chlorination, some precursor enhancement was noted, especially in the absence of bicarbonate. Results are interpreted both from a mechanistic standpoint and with respect to their applicability to water treatment practice.     

Double structure THM analyses of a heating test in a fractured tuff incorporating intrinsic permeability variations

This paper presents thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) analyses simulating the Drift Scale Test (DST) performed at Yucca Mountain. A double structure approach based on two superimposed domains is adopted. Intrinsic permeability changes with deformations imply full THM coupling. Temperatures and gas permeabilities were measured during 4 years and are used to validate the model. Measured gas permeability variations show patterns that are successfully explained by the model calculations. These gas permeability variations may be attributed to thermo-hydraulic effects, and also to mechanical effects. Different cases of intrinsic permeability variations have been considered in the model and their influence on the calculated temperatures, degree of saturations and gas permeabilities are presented. Volumetric deformation, in contraction or dilatancy, implies changes in the aperture of rock fractures that in turn lead to changes in intrinsic permeability. Dilatancy, caused by shear stresses, increases intrinsic permeability. Consideration of this factor contributes significantly to improve the agreement of calculated gas permeability with the measured values obtained during the DST experiment.