Effects of niobium additions on the structure,depth, and austenite grain size of the case of carburized 0.07% C steels

Carbon (0.07%) steel samples containing about 0.04% Nb singly and in combination with nitrogen were carburized in a natural Titas gas atmosphere at a temperature of 1223 K (950 °C) and a pressure of about 0.10 MPa for 1/2 to 4 h, followed by slow cooling in the furnace. Their microstructures were studied by optical microscopy. The austenite grain size of the case and the case depths were determined on baseline samples of low-carbon steels and also on niobium and (Nb + N) microalloyed steel samples. It was found that, when compared to the baseline steel, niobium alone or in combination with nitrogen decreased the thickness of cementite network near the surface of the carburized case of the steels. However, niobium in combination with nitrogen was more effective than niobium in reducing the thickness of cementite network. Niobium with or without nitrogen inhibited the formation of Widmanstätten cementite plates at grain boundaries and within the grains near the surface in the hypereutectoid zone of the case. It was also revealed that, when compared to the baseline steel, niobium decreased the case depth of the carburized steels, but that niobium with nitrogen is more effective than niobium alone in reducing the case depth. Niobium as niobium carbide (NbC) and niobium in the presence of nitrogen as niobium carbonitride, [Nb(C,N)] particles refined the austenite grain size of the carburized case, but Nb(C,N) was more effective than NbC in inhibiting austenite grain growth.     

Three-dimensional observations of proeutectoid cementite precipitates at short isothermal transformation times

Three-dimensional (3D) analysis techniques were used to examine a model Fe–1.34% C–13.0% Mn alloy to reveal connectivities of proeutectoid cementite precipitates whose growth was arrested at an early stage. The present results indicate that grain boundary cementite precipitates nucleate at austenite grain boundary edges and corners, then grow and spread on the grain boundary faces. No cementite precipitates were found to connect solely to austenite twin boundaries, which appear to act as barriers to precipitate growth rather than as potential nucleation sites. Cementite precipitates were all connected to austenite grain boundaries or cementite grain boundary precipitates, confirming 3D observations made earlier on a specimen transformed at a longer isothermal transformation time. Widmanstätten lath precipitates appear to emanate only from grain boundary cementite precipitates. While edges of several Widmanstätten plate precipitates were observed to intersect with areas of ‘clean’ austenite grain boundary, they may or may not nucleate directly on austenite grain boundaries.     

Crystallography of Widmanstätten austenite in duplex stainless steel weld metal

Abstract

Two kinds of austenite grow from δ-ferrite during the cooling of the duplex stainless steel weld deposits studied here, Widmanstätten plates and allotriomorphs which precipitate at δ–δ grain boundaries. It is found using microtexture measurements that the preferred crystallographic orientation of the Widmanstätten austenite can be estimated using established theory if it is assumed that there is an interaction between external stress and the growing plates. It is also demonstrated that the Widmanstätten and allotriomorphic forms of austenite may not be identically oriented even when the former appears to originate from the latter; this may be a consequence of differences in the transformation mechanisms of these two forms of austenite.     

Orientation relations between austenite, Widmanstätten carbides, and martensite in 150G4 high-carbon steel

The crystallographic tie between structural components in high-carbon steel 150G4 after isothermal γ → α transformation is investigated. The method of electron microscopic analysis is used for experimental determination of the orientation relation between Widmanstätten carbides and martensite, which is a consequence of the crystallographic relation between austenite and Widmanstätten carbides and between austenite and martensite. The causes of implementation of specific variants of orientation relations in high-carbon steels are discussed.     

Analysis of the orientation relationships between austenite, Widmanstätten carbides, and martensite in the 150G4 high-carbon steel after isothermal γ → α transformation

The orientation relationships (ORs) between the initial austenite, Widmanstätten carbide (WC), and martensite have been analyzed by the electron-microscopic method. An OR between WC and martensite has been experimentally determined in addition to the well-known OR between WC and austenite and the Kurdjumov-Sachs OR between austenite and martensite. The realization of a concrete variant of the Bagaryatskii ORs between martensite and WC is determined by specific features of the kinetics of austenite transformation in hypereutectoid steels.     

Orientation relationships of intragranular austenite in duplex stainless steel weld metals

Formation and characteristics of fine intragranular austenite were studied for low energy input duplex stainless steel welds. Microstructures were largely ferritic with some allotriomorphic grain boundary austenite, Widmanstätten type austenite, fine intragranular austenite and nitrides. Electron backscattered diffraction analysis revealed that grain boundary austenite had a random orientation relationship (OR) with one of the adjacent ferrite grains and was close to Kurdjumov–Sachs (KS) with the other, whereas Widmanstätten austenite always showed an OR near KS. The finest intragranular austenite was mainly randomly oriented, whereas coarser austenite more often was close to KS. It is argued that the OR of intragranular austenite with the ferritic matrix is governed by a combination of composition, determining driving force for nucleation at temperature, cooling rate and the availability of nitrides acting as nucleation sites. A random OR is most likely for higher cooling rates and compositions promoting nucleation at lower temperatures.     

Weldability of X100 linepipe

Abstract

Research has been carried out to identify weld metal compositions and microstructures capable of meeting high strength and toughness requirements for X100 seam welded linepipe. Single pass, multiwire submerged arc welds were made in experimental, high strength low alloy steel plates using consumables to give a wide range of weld metal alloying. Work has shown that the optimum strength and toughness are obtained in Mo–B–Ti alloyed weld metals with P _cm values between 0.218 and 0.250. Weld metal microstructures were almost fully acicular ferrite with an ultrafine grain size (1–2 µm). Dilatometric studies demonstrated that at typical weld cooling rates the optimised welds transformed at significantly lower temperatures than those reported for X65 plate deposits, which contain acicular ferrite in the form of idiomorphic primary ferrite and intragranular Widmanstätten ferrite. The maximum rate of transformation in the optimised welds occurred between 515 and 570°C, which indicates that the acicular ferrite in this case consisted of intragranular Widmanstätten ferrite and/or bainite. The ferrite would appear to have a fine plate morphology growing from large as well as small inclusions, but not very far before the onset of hard impingement, thereby ensuring an ultrafine grain size. Tensile strengths of 708–784 MPa were achieved with an 80 J Charpy impact transition temperature toughness between -68 and -115°C. More highly alloyed weld metals containing 2–3%Mn and 1.5%Si transformed at lower temperatures and showed increased strength, but there was a substantial loss of toughness, attributed to the relatively unimpeded growth of large ferrite plates from larger inclusions, and the replacement of ultrafine acicular ferrite between these plates by blocks of martensite–austenite. One pass per side, multiwire submerged arc welds manufactured to the optimum weld metal chemistry confirmed their applicability for thin section X100 linepipe.     

Correlation between the crystallography and morphology of proeutectoid Widmanstätten cementite precipitates

Electron backscatter diffraction was used in conjunction with deep etching to examine the relationship between the crystallography and three-dimensional morphology of cementite precipitates in an Fe–1.34 wt% C–13.1 wt% Mn steel. Orientation relationships (ORs) between more than 200 proeutectoid Widmanstätten cementite precipitates and the surrounding austenite were determined to be on or very near either the well-known Pitsch OR or the Farooque–Edmonds OR. Scanning electron microscopy of the same specimens after deep etching was used to determine the three-dimensional morphology of each of the precipitates for which an OR was determined. These precipitates could be identified as either monolithic plates or conglomerates of laths. Results show that monolithic plates consistently exhibit the Pitsch OR and conglomerates of laths have the Farooque–Edmonds OR, indicating that the precipitate morphologies are dictated by their orientation relationships.     

铌微合金化重载齿轮钢的疲劳性能

利用旋转弯曲疲劳试验方法研究了三种重载齿轮钢渗碳后的疲劳性能。结果表明,添加铌能够细化重载齿轮钢组织,提高渗碳层硬度,从而提高其疲劳强度。同时,疲劳裂纹在渗碳层沿原奥氏体晶界扩展,铌微合金化重载齿轮钢的晶粒细化,从而可以阻碍疲劳裂纹的扩展。此外,扫描电镜观察疲劳断口发现,重载齿轮钢渗碳后疲劳裂纹起源于基体或夹杂物,夹杂物尺寸越小,疲劳性能越好。     

Crystallogeometric analysis of the orientation relationship between austenite,Widmanstätten carbides,and martensite in carbon steels

The common orientation relationships (OR) between austenite, Widmanstätten carbides (WC), and martensite have been studied as a function of the type of the WC/austenite OR (Pitsch, Thompson, or Sleeswyk OR). It has been established that only two of twelve possible OR versions, which are close to the known Bagaryatskii OR, are realized between the WC and martensite upon the martensitic transformation and are observed experimentally. The causes for the realization of these two versions observed upon the experimental investigation of high-carbon steels are discussed with allowance for the specific crystallographic features of the WC/austenite interphase interface structure.     

The dynamic transformation of deformed austenite at temperatures above the Ae3

Recent observations regarding the dynamic transformation of deformed austenite at temperatures above the Ae₃ are reviewed. Experimental results obtained on four different steels over the temperature range from 743 to 917 °C and at strains up to ε = 5 are described. It is shown that there is a critical strain for the formation of superequilibrium ferrite and that the volume fraction of transformed ferrite increases with the strain. The structures observed are Widmanstätten in form and appear to have nucleated displacively. The effect of deformation on the Gibbs energy of austenite is estimated by assuming that the austenite continues to work-harden after initiation of the transformation and that its flow stress and dislocation density can be derived from the experimental flow curve by making suitable assumptions about two-phase flow. By further taking into account the inhomogeneity of the dislocation density, Gibbs energy contributions (driving forces) are derived that are sufficient to promote transformation as much as 100 °C above the Ae₃. The C diffusion times required for the dynamic formation of the cementite particles observed are estimated. These range from ～25 to 100 μs and are therefore consistent with the times available during rolling. The Gibbs energy calculations suggest that growth of the Widmanstätten ferrite is followed by C diffusion at the lower carbon contents, while it is accompanied by C diffusion at the higher carbon levels.     

Unified rationalization of the Pitsch and T–H orientation relationships between Widmanstätten cementite and austenite

This work demonstrates that understanding the habit planes of cementite plates is an important step to gain an insight into the irrational orientation relationships (ORs) between Widmanstätten cementite and austenite, i.e. the Pitsch and T–H ORs. A reproducible irrational OR in this system is attributed to a unique correspondence between the OR and the habit plane, under the condition that the habit plane is a quasi-invariant plane. The OR is constrained by two parallelism conditions: parallelism of [0 1 0]_C and 〈1 1 0〉_A; parallelism of a group of Δg’s in the zone axis of [0 1 0]_C. The calculated ORs and habit planes are fully consistent with the experimental results from the literature.     

Abnormal ferrite in hyper-eutectoid steels

The microstructural characteristics of ultra-high carbon hyper-eutectoid Fe–C and Fe–C–Cu experimental steels have been examined after isothermal transformation in a range just beneath the eutectoid temperature. Particular attention was paid to the formation of so-called “abnormal ferrite”, which refers to coarse ferrite grains which can form, in hyper-eutectoid compositions, on the pro-eutectoid cementite before the pearlite reaction occurs. Thus it is confirmed that the abnormal ferrite is not a result of pearlite coarsening, but of austenite decomposition before the conditions for coupled growth of pearlite are established. The abnormal ferrite formed on both allotriomorphic and Widmanstätten forms of pro-eutectoid cementite, and, significantly, it was observed that the pro-eutectoid cementite continued to grow, despite being enclosed by the abnormal ferrite. Under certain conditions this could lead to the eventual formation of substantially reduced amounts of pearlite. Thus, a model for carbon redistribution that allows the pro-eutectoid cementite to thicken concurrently with the abnormal ferrite is presented. The orientation relationships between the abnormal ferrite and pro-eutectoid cementite were also determined and found to be close to those which have been reported between pearlitic ferrite and pearlitic cementite.     

Three-dimensional analysis of proeutectoid cementite precipitates

Serial sectioning and computer-aided visualization of three-dimensional reconstructions were used to reveal the three-dimensional morphology, connectivity and distribution of proeutectoid cementite precipitates in a model Fe–1.34% C–13.0% Mn alloy. Only dendritic grain boundary precipitates and Widmanstätten precipitate morphologies were observed in the present alloy. Unlike earlier morphological studies of similar alloys, intragranular precipitates were not observed. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy of deeply etched specimens corroborated and augmented these results. Three-dimensional analysis has also made possible the first quantitative three-dimensional measurements of cementite precipitates and yielded a more precise classification of cementite precipitates than was possible with classical two-dimensional techniques.     

Evaluation of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Dissimilar Austenitic/Super Duplex Stainless Steel Joint

To study the effect of chemical composition on microstructural features and mechanical properties of dissimilar joints between super duplex and austenitic stainless steels, welding was attempted by gas tungsten arc welding process with a super duplex (ER2594) and an austenitic (ER309LMo) stainless steel filler metal. While the austenitic weld metal had vermicular delta ferrite within austenitic matrix, super duplex stainless steel was mainly comprised of allotriomorphic grain boundary and Widmanstätten side plate austenite morphologies in the ferrite matrix. Also the heat-affected zone of austenitic base metal comprised of large austenite grains with little amounts of ferrite, whereas a coarse-grained ferritic region was observed in the heat-affected zone of super duplex base metal. Although both welded joints showed acceptable mechanical properties, the hardness and impact strength of the weld metal produced using super duplex filler metal were found to be better than that obtained by austenitic filler metal.     

On the mechanism of the formation of widmanstätten graphite in flake graphite cast irons

The mechanism whereby Widmanstätten graphite develops during the solidification of flake graphite cast irons has been found to involve the preferential segregation and a complex interaction of specific elements at the surface of the graphite flake during solidification and the development of the plate like appendages in the solid austenite adjacent to the graphite flake. The literature has suggested that lead, calcium and hydrogen may be causal to the formation of Widmanstätten graphite, but has the interaction of these elements has not been effectively documented. While the formation of this degraded graphite is often attributed to the presence of a sufficient amount of lead alone, it has been observed that Widmanstätten graphite develops only in conjunction with a combination of factors operative at the graphite-austenite interface. Commercial flake graphite cast irons may exhibit Widmanstätten graphite as a function of lead and calcium content in the iron, moisture content in the molding media, solidification cooling rate and the rate of cooling immediately after solidification, etc. Lead contamination of cast irons was also observed to increase the chilling tendency of the iron. The detrimental effects of lead can be counteracted by the presence of rare earths in the iron, where rare earth elements react with lead to form stable, high melting point compounds.     

Role of mechanical activation in the dynamic transformation of austenite

When austenite is deformed above the equilibrium transformation temperature Ae₃, it is dynamically transformed into Widmanstätten ferrite by a displacive mechanism. On removal of the load it is slowly retransformed into austenite by diffusional processes. The forward transformation has recently been explained in terms of a thermodynamic model in which the lower free energy of austenite is raised above that of normally unstable ferrite as a result of the additional stored energy associated with the dislocations introduced by straining. This model is here shown to be unable to account for the initiation of transformation at critical strains of about 0.1, at which only low densities of dislocations are present. Of particular importance is the observation that dynamic transformation can be initiated at temperatures 100 °C and more above the Ae₃ and that the critical strain actually decreases with increasing temperature and increasing chemical free energy barrier. This discrepancy is removed by allowing for mechanical (stress-based) activation of the transformation. The latter provides the energy required to accommodate the shear of the parent austenite into Widmanstätten plates, as well as the volume change or dilatation accompanying ferrite formation. The work of dilatation and the shear accommodation work, omitted from the previous analysis, are introduced here as barriers to the transformation that are overcome by the applied stress. This modified approach is able to account for the very rapid forward (mechanically activated) transformation compared with the much slower reverse transformation that takes place in the absence of stress.     

Structure formed in two-phase (α + γ) field and mechanical properties of a cryogenic alloy 10N7

The effect of different types of structures produced by quenching from the intercritical temperature range on the strength, plasticity, and impact toughness of the Fe-6.9Ni-0.1C alloy has been studied. Two structures—ferrite + globular cementite and lath martensite—have been used as the initial state. The rate of heating into the two-phase (α + γ) field has been selected such that four morphological types of twophase structures, namely, ferritic-martensitic (Widmanstäten or globular) and duplex (lamellar or lamellarglobular), could be formed in a single alloy as a result of partial α → γ and γ → α transformations. It has been found that the mechanical properties of the alloy depend on the type of the initial structure and on the rate and temperature of heating to the intercritical temperature range. It has been shown that the alloy with a Widmanstätten ferritic-martensitic structure has a more favorable combination of the strength and plasticity properties than the alloy with a globular structure. The alloy with a lamellar duplex structure offers a much higher level of the impact toughness, plasticity, and strength at low temperatures than the alloy with a Widmanstätten ferritic-martensitic structure.     

铬镍渗碳钢的残余奥氏体

20CrZNi4、18CrZNi4W钢往往经诊碳（或碳氢共修）淬火后使用,由于合金元素Ni、Cr量较高,热处理后工件表面存在大量的残余奥氏体。残余奥氏体对性能的影响,其量多少为宜,是一个比较复杂而值得注意的问题。本文讨论了诊碳层不同的合碳量、渗碳后高温回火、淬火工艺、冷处理及喷九处理等对残余奥氏体量的影响,从而针对所要求的残余奥氏体量来选择合适的表面含碳量、相应的热处理方法及不同的工艺参数。     

Microstructural development of brass alloys with various Bi and Pb additions

In the study, using the gravity casting method, adding 1.52%Pb, 0.5%Bi, 1%Bi and 1.5%Bi into the brass (Cu-40%Zn) alloy. The microstructural changes from the Widmanstätten into the networked structures when Pb was added to 1.5%. The microstructure was an acicular Widmanstätten when Bi contents were 0.5% and 1% and it was a plate Widmanstätten when Bi contents were 1.5%. There were four kinds of precipitation morphologies of Bi particles. The precipitation morphologies of Bi particles can be divided into a globular (<1 μm), a disc (=1 μm), discontinuous massive (>1 μm), and continuous block structures (about 20～30 μm). The Pb particles were embedded in the networked α phase and the Bi particles precipitated at the α/α and the α/β′ grain boundaries. The XRD analysis showed the high proportion of β′ phase with 0.5% Bi-brass and 1% Bi-brass and indicated a lower one with Pb-brass and 1.5% Bi-brass.