Effects of electronic outlining on students' argumentative writing performance

This study examined the effect of electronic outlining on the quality of students' writing products and how outlining affects perceived mental effort during the writing task. Additionally, it was studied how students appropriate and appreciate an outline tool and whether they need explicit instruction in order to engage in planning. To answer these questions, the writing products and self‐report data from 34 tenth‐grade students of a Dutch pre‐university school were analysed. Students wrote two similar argumentative texts with or without an outline tool. Results show that electronic outlining improves the quality of students' argumentative texts and decreases mental effort. Answers to a retrospective questionnaire showed that a short instruction on the outline tool was sufficient for students to understand its working and that most students experienced the tool as beneficial. Finally, results indicate that without specific instruction on text planning, students hardly devote any time to this important aspect of writing.     

Improving summary writing through formative feedback in a technology-enhanced learning environment

Summary writing is a useful instructional tool for learning. However, summary writing is a challenge to many students. This mixed-method study examined the potential of the Student Mental Model Analyzer for Research and Teaching (SMART) system to help students produce summaries that reflect key concepts and relations in a text. SMART uses the students' summary to generate a multi-dimensional 3S (surface, structure, semantic) evaluation of the students' mental model. This model is then used to drive feedback to help students revise their summary. The current study is an initial investigation examining whether writing and revising in SMART improves students' summary quality. Students (n = 38) in a graduate-level online course used SMART for seven reading assignments. The 38 students submitted a total of 357 summaries in response to the seven readings. In 47 cases, students produced both an initial draft and a modified revision. These 47 cases were selected for analysis. In the quantitative phase, MANOVA results indicated that students' summaries improved along the 3S dimensions from initial draft to revision. In the qualitative phase, inspection of exemplar cases revealed how students' mental models changed towards more robust and cohesive knowledge structure for texts.     

Learning through computer-based concept mapping with scaffolding aid

Abstract Concept mapping has been applied in a variety of fields, including instruction, learning, curriculum development, and assessment. Because many empirical studies have proven the validity of concept mapping, a computer-based concept mapping system has been developed. The system provides two learning environments. In the 'construct-by-self' environment, the system provides students with the evaluation results and corresponding hints for feedback. The students construct concept maps by themselves with only the assistance of the feedback. In the 'construct-on-scaffold' environment, in addition to the feedback, the students receive an incomplete concept map, within which some nodes and links were set as blanks for the scaffold. A study comparing the effectiveness of the 'construct-by-self', 'construct-on-scaffold', and 'construct by paper-and-pencil' concept mapping showed that the 'construct-on-scaffold' had better effect for learning on biology. Both of the two computer-based procedures are helpful for students in completing their concept maps.     

Electronic outlining as a writing strategy: Effects on students' writing products,mental effort and writing process

This study addresses to what extent and how electronic outlining enhances students' writing performance. To this end, the focus of this study is not only on students' final writing products but also on the organisation of the writing process (i.e., planning, translating, and reviewing) and perceived mental effort during writing. In addition, effects of repeated electronic outlining were examined. A combined within and between subjects design was implemented in which 93 10th-grade students wrote two argumentative texts with or without using electronic outlining. Analyses showed that using electronic outlining for planning and writing significantly improved the presentation of the argumentative structure. However, effects were less clear for correctly and completely establishing a text structure and no effects were found on the elaboration of students' argumentation. Process data showed that electronic outlining increased total process time, but no effect was found on students' overall planning and revision activities. Finally, self-reports showed no effect of electronic outlining on students' perceived mental effort. Nevertheless, repeated use of the same writing strategy enhanced writing fluency.     

Write between the lines: Electronic outlining and the organization of text ideas

Writing is an important, complex skill which could be enhanced through the effective use of writing tools that are incorporated in word processors. The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of (repeated) electronic outlining on the quality of students’ writing products and perceived mental effort. The study also investigated how students appropriate and appreciate the outline tool. Data were collected from 58 ninth-grade students who wrote two argumentative texts about a topic they had previously discussed during several class sessions, meaning that ideas were generated and clustered beforehand. Students’ writing products were scored for Total Text Structure, Structure Presentation, and Hierarchical Elaboration of Arguments. Results reveal that first-time tool-use had no significant effect on students’ writing products and perceived mental effort. However, repeated use positively affected Structure Presentation and led to decreased perceived mental effort, but no significant effect was found on Total Text Structure and Hierarchical Elaboration of Arguments. Answers to a retrospective questionnaire showed that students quickly appropriated the tool with tool appreciation increasing with repeated use. This study suggests that in order to profit from electronic outlining, it is important to practice using the outline tool and to use it for complex tasks, requiring idea generation and organization.     

Exploring feedback and student characteristics relevant for personalizing feedback strategies

Personalized tutoring feedback is a powerful method that expert human tutors apply when helping students to optimize their learning. Thus, research on tutoring feedback strategies tailoring feedback according to important factors of the learning process has been recognized as a promising issue in the field of computer-based adaptive educational technologies. Our paper seeks to contribute to this area of research by addressing the following aspects: First, to investigate how students' gender, prior knowledge, and motivational characteristics relate to learning outcomes (knowledge gain and changes in motivation). Second, to investigate the impact of these student characteristics on how tutoring feedback strategies varying in content (procedural vs. conceptual) and specificity (concise hints vs. elaborated explanations) of tutoring feedback messages affect students' learning and motivation. Third, to explore the influence of the feedback parameters and student characteristics on students' immediate post-feedback behaviour (skipping vs. trying to accomplish a task, and failing vs. succeeding in providing a correct answer). To address these issues, detailed log-file analyses of an experimental study have been conducted. In this study, 124 sixth and seventh graders have been exposed to various tutoring feedback strategies while working on multi-trial error correction tasks in the domain of fraction arithmetic. The web-based intelligent learning environment ActiveMath was used to present the fraction tasks and trace students' progress and activities. The results reveal that gender is an important factor for feedback efficiency: Male students achieve significantly lower knowledge gains than female students under all tutoring feedback conditions (particularly, under feedback strategies starting with a conceptual hint). Moreover, perceived competence declines from pre- to post-test significantly more for boys than for girls. Yet, the decline in perceived competence is not accompanied by a decline in intrinsic motivation, which, instead, increases significantly from pre- to post-test. With regard to the post-feedback behaviour, the results indicate that students skip further attempts more frequently after conceptual than after procedural feedback messages.     

From integrative to game‐based integrative peer response: high ability versus low ability

Peer response is useful to improve student writing. However, traditional peer response takes a single mode, which has some problems, such as effort for preparation of documents or ambiguous feedback. To address these problems, this study presents two peer response approaches, that is, an integrative approach and a game‐based integrative approach. Additionally, whether students with these two peer response approaches and those with a non‐peer response approach performed differently is examined in this study, where students' ability levels were also considered. The findings suggest that students with the peer response generally demonstrated better writing performance than those without the peer response. Furthermore, students with the game‐based integrative approach showed better writing quality than those with the integrative approach. Moreover, the former was more helpful in giving direct feedback on surface features and criticism than the latter. However, the usefulness of peer response approaches was associated with ability levels. More specifically, the integrative approach was beneficial for the high‐ability students to improve on their written expression in the aspect of length of composition, while the game‐based integrative approach was advantageous to enhance the low‐ability students' writing quality in the aspect of clear paragraph.     

Delaying elaborated feedback within computer-based learning environments: The role of summative and question-based feedback

Elaborative feedback (EF) containing explanations on students' responses benefits learning. Computer-based environments provide learners with EF in different ways, for example, on an immediate question-by-question basis or after answering a set of questions. Recent findings also suggest that delaying EF enhances learning. However, it is unclear to what extent different types of delayed-EF favour students' performance. This study examines whether and how two types of delayed-EF (question-based vs. summative) influence students' question-answering performance and final learning over immediate-EF. One hundred thirty-three secondary-school students read a scientific text and answered 12 multiple-choice questions in a computer-based environment. A day later, students completed a final learning test with 20 open-ended questions. Results showed that neither question-based delayed EF nor summative delayed EF outperformed immediate EF. However, EF moderated the relationship between students' prior knowledge and their performance outcomes, suggesting that students with higher levels of prior knowledge receiving summative delayed EF benefited more.     

E-portfolios supporting primary students' writing performance and peer feedback

E-portfolios show great promise for supporting students' writing performance and facilitating peer feedback, but empirical research of their use in primary education is limited. To address this gap, a yearlong study was conducted in a 4th grade primary class in Cyprus implementing e-portfolios (n = 20) to help students document their progress and send feedback to peers. A generic, open source weblog tool localized into Greek was used as an e-portfolio tool. Data sources included 176 student-essays, 1306 instances of peer feedback, students pre- and post-tests on writing performance, nine videotaped student interviews and one teacher interview. A paired samples t-test analysis showed that there was a statistically significant difference between students' pre-test (M = 62.6, SD = 9.82, n = 20) and post-test (M = 76.5, SD = 12.6, n = 20) on writing performance (t (19) = −8.03, p < .01). A repeated measures analysis of variance on e-portfolio artifacts showed that there were learning gains with respect to students' writing performance over time [F(4.01, 76.25) = 31.59, p < .01, η² = 0.89]. A qualitative analysis of students' comments showed that students provided more thorough peer feedback over time and became gradually more capable of providing corrective feedback. The qualitative analysis of student interviews provided evidence that students valued peer feedback in their portfolios. The analysis of the teacher interview showed that average and high-ability students benefited the most from peer feedback. This study provided evidence that e-portfolios can support the development of students' writing performance and peer feedback skills in the context of primary school essay writing. Instructional implications for portfolio implementation are offered.     

Electronic versus traditional print textbooks: A comparison study on the influence of university students' learning

University students are increasingly choosing to purchase e-textbooks for their mobile devices as an alternative to traditional textbooks. This study examines the relationship between textbook format and 538 university students' grades and perceived learning scores. Results demonstrate that there was no difference in cognitive learning and grades between the two groups, suggesting that the electronic textbook is as effective for learning as the traditional textbook. The mean scores indicated that students who chose e-textbooks for their education courses had significantly higher perceived affective learning and psychomotor learning than students who chose to use traditional print textbooks.     

Effect of answer format and review method on college students' learning

Interactive instructional methods are characterized by engaging students with the course material and involve delivering feedback for their efforts. Using a mixed 2 × 2 factorial experiment, we compared the effects of multiple choice answer formats (word versus letter) and methods (automated versus manual) on 70 undergraduate students' acquisition of instructional material. Although there was no significant difference in participants' gain scores between automated (“clickers”) and manual (holding up response cards) methods, significantly greater learning occurred when participants used the word rather than letter answer format. Despite participants' preference for letter over word format, instructors may still want to require students to write out answers to review questions given the improved performance it yields.     

Helping students help themselves: Generative learning strategies improve middle school students' self-regulation in a cognitive tutor

The current study investigated whether prompting students to engage in generative learning strategies improves students' subsequent judgments of learning and self-regulation. Seventy-eight middle school students in a pre-algebra class completed worksheets in between problem-solving sessions in a computer-based cognitive tutor. Some students were prompted to engage in a generative learning strategy (i.e., writing a summary or writing an explanation for a peer) followed by a judgment of learning (generative group), whereas other students were only asked to make a judgment of learning (control group). Results indicated non-significant levels of judgment accuracy in both groups; however, students in the generative group showed better-calibrated help-seeking behaviors when solving subsequent problems in the tutor. These results suggest that self-regulation can improve in the absence of accurate learning judgments, and that generative learning strategies can facilitate such an improvement. This may be especially true for younger students, who generally demonstrate lower metacognitive awareness.     

Exploring students' flow experiences in business simulation games

Business simulation games are a motivational and engaging tool for teaching business management. However, relatively little is known about what factors contribute to their success. This study explores the role of flow experienced while using business simulation games. Specifically, this research investigates the influence of challenge, skills, feedback, and goal clarity on students' flow experience. It also explores the impact of flow on generic skills development, perceived learning, and satisfaction. Based on a survey of 167 undergraduate students who used a classroom‐based business simulation game, the findings show that the challenge provided by the game, students' skills to meet the challenge, and instant feedback positively influenced students' flow. Conversely, goal clarity did not foster the optimal experience. Flow positively impacted generic skills development, perceived learning, and satisfaction.     

Effects of digital dictionary format on incidental acquisition of spelling knowledge and cognitive load during second language learning: Click-on vs. key-in dictionaries

Recent research has shown that students involved in computer-based second language learning prefer to use a digital dictionary in which a word can be looked up by clicking on it with a mouse (i.e., click-on dictionary) to a digital dictionary in which a word can be looked up by typing it on a keyboard (i.e., key-in dictionary). This study investigated whether digital dictionary format also differentially affects students' incidental acquisition of spelling knowledge and cognitive load during second language learning. A comparison between a click-on dictionary condition, a key-in dictionary condition, and a non-dictionary control condition for 45 Taiwanese students learning English as a foreign language revealed that learners who used a key-in dictionary invested more time investment on dictionary consultation than learners who used a click-on dictionary. However, on a subsequent unexpected spelling test the key-in group invested less time investment and performed better than the click-on group. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Reflection prompts and tutor feedback in a web-based learning environment: effects on students' self-regulated learning competence

This study investigated the effects of reflection prompts and tutor feedback on the development of students' self-regulated learning competence (i.e. SRLC). In a web-based learning environment forty-two students completed a study task with embedded prompts eliciting reflection. The reflection prompts could either deal with aspects of self-regulated learning or not. In addition, the students could either receive electronic feedback from a tutor on their reflection expressions or not. The inventory of learning styles that was used to register development of the SRLC revealed a significant progress on the regulation subscales as a function of tutor feedback. An interaction between the students' evaluations of reflection prompts and tutor feedback indicated that the prompts that were related to aspects of self-regulated learning were perceived as less disturbing than the non-SRLC related prompts, especially when combined with tutor feedback. This study offers indications for the practical value of the combination of reflection prompts and tutor feedback as a promising means to develop students' SRLC in distance education applying a web-based learning environment.     

Comparing the effects of representational tools in collaborative and individual inquiry learning

Constructing a representation in which students express their domain understanding can help them improve their knowledge. Many different representational formats can be used to express one’s domain understanding (e.g., concept maps, textual summaries, mathematical equations). The format can direct students’ attention to specific aspects of the subject matter. For example, creating a concept map can emphasize domain concepts and forming equations can stress arithmetical aspects. The focus of the current study was to examine the role of tools for constructing domain representations in collaborative inquiry learning. The study was driven by three questions. First, what are the effects of collaborative inquiry learning with representational tools on learning outcomes? Second, does format have differential effects on domain understanding? And third, does format have differential effects on students’ inclination to construct a representation? A pre-test post-test design was applied with 61 dyads in a (face-to-face) collaborative learning setting and 95 students in an individual setting. The participants worked on a learning task in a simulation-based learning environment equipped with a representational tool. The format of the tool was either conceptual or arithmetical or textual. Our results show that collaborative learners outperform individuals, in particular with regard to intuitive knowledge and situational knowledge. In the case of individuals a positive relation was observed between constructing a representation and learning outcomes, in particular situational knowledge. In general, the effects of format could not be linked directly to learning outcomes, but marked differences were found regarding students’ inclination to use or not use specific formats.     

Situation Definition and the Online Synchronous Writing Conference

Since the mid 1990's, more and more college and university writing centers have been offering online synchronous writing conferences to students. Writing center researchers have published extensively on how tutors can promote collaboration in online conferences, but comparatively few have used Lev Vygotsky's conception of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to analyze activity in these conferences or to develop specific methods for working with students in these environments. Using more recent developments in the theory of the ZPD, such as the concept of situation definition, I will discuss how tutors can apply strategies related to the ZPD to promote student learning. By focusing on students’ definitions of rhetorical concepts that often implicitly guide students’ writing processes, tutors can help students improve how they approach their writing tasks. Progress through the ZPD, then, is more related to how students grow their own understanding, rather than on the correcting of students’ texts. I will illustrate this theoretical discussion by presenting examples of two online synchronous writing conferences, and I will describe the implications and possible shortcomings of a method of tutoring that applies the concept of situation definition and the ZPD.     

Guiding the use of collective feedback displayed on heatmaps to reduce group conformity and improve learning in Peer Instruction

Peer Instruction is an active learning method widely used in higher education, whereby students answer a series of questions twice, once before and once after peer discussion. There is an ongoing debate as to whether a collective feedback should be given after the students' initial answer, and if so, how the frequently observed group conformity can be avoided. This study examined whether guiding on the use of this feedback can reduce group conformity and improve learning using an interactive learning environment to administer a new type of quiz using graphics, and delivering collective feedback to the whole class in a novel heatmap format. In the experimental group, the teacher told the students that the answer indicated by the heatmap was not necessarily the correct one; this information was not given to students in the control group. Results revealed that guided students were less likely to adopt the (incorrect) majority answer than the non-guided students, and consequently, they were more likely to improve their learning by reaching an agreement about the correct answer through discussion with their peers. These findings suggest that guiding students in their use of collective feedback may have a crucial role in Peer Instruction.     

Concept maps: A useful and usable tool for computer-based knowledge assessment? A literature review with a focus on usability

The concept map is now widely accepted as an instrument for the assessment of conceptual knowledge and is increasingly being embedded into technology-based environments. Usability addresses how appropriate (for a particular use) or how user-friendly a computer-based assessment instrument is. As we know from human-computer interaction research, if the interface is not user-friendly, a computer-based assessment can result in decreased test performance and reduced validity. This means that the usability of the interface affects the assessment in such a way that if the test is not user-friendly, then the test taker will not be able to fully demonstrate his/her level of proficiency and will instead be scored according to his/her information and communication technology (ICT) literacy skills. The guidelines of the International Test Commission (2006) require usability testing for such instruments and suggest that design standards be implemented. However, we do not know whether computer-conducted concept map assessments fulfill these standards. The present paper addresses this aspect. We conducted a systematic research review to examine whether and how researchers have studied and considered usability when conducting computer-based concept map assessments. Only 24 out of 119 journal articles that assessed computer-based concept maps discussed the usability issue in some way. Nevertheless, our review brings to light the idea that the impact of usability on computer-based concept map assessments is an issue that has received insufficient attention. In addition, usability ensures a suitable interaction between test taker and test device; thus, the training effort required for test use can be reduced if a test's usability is straight forward. Our literature review, however, illustrates that the interplay between usability and test use training has mostly been neglected in current studies.