Characteristics of smoke extraction by natural ventilation during a fire in a shallow urban road tunnel with roof openings

The characteristics of the spread of smoke were investigated for a fire occurring in a shallow urban road tunnel with roof openings in its ceiling. In this type of tunnel, the smoke produced by a fire is ventilated through the openings in the ceiling given the natural buoyancy of hot smoke. A fire experiment was conducted using a 1/12 scale model tunnel to ascertain whether natural ventilation via the roof openings was sufficient to maintain a safe evacuation environment for tunnel users. The distance from the fire to the tip position of the spreading smoke and the thickness of smoke layers along the ceiling were investigated by changing the heat release rate and using two types of median structure as experimental parameters. The two types of median structure dividing the tunnel into two road tubes were pillars and walls. It was clarified that the smoke spreading distance was constant and independent of the heat release rate of the fire under our experimental conditions. Moreover, it was confirmed that the thickness of the smoke layers in the tunnel thinned out quickly due to the natural ventilation.     

Full-scale experiment research and theoretical study for fires in tunnels with roof openings

In order to assess the possibility of exhausting smoke through passive roof openings and the influence of smoke on personnel in the tunnels, full-scale fire experiments in tunnels with roof openings are carried out, which were rarely reported in the previous references. The data of smoke propagation, smoke sedimentation, velocity field and temperature field are measured. On the basis of the smoke longitudinal propagation laws, the prediction model of calculating backlayering distance is built. The Kurioka model and the built mathematical models are validated by those experiments. All the experimental data presented in this paper can be further applied for verification of numerical models, and bench-scale experimental results. Those full-scale experimental results and theoretical analysis can also be used for directing tunnel fire research, which afforded scientific gist for fire protection and construction of road tunnel with roof openings.     

Studies on buoyancy driven two-directional smoke flow layering length with combination of point extraction and longitudinal ventilation in tunnel fires

This paper investigates the buoyancy-driven smoke flow layering length (both upstream and downstream) beneath the ceiling with combination of point extraction and longitudinal ventilation in tunnel fires. A theoretical model is developed based on previous back-laying model with only longitudinal ventilation, with modified actual heat release rate, as well as modified upstream and downstream opposing longitudinal air flow velocities by the induced flow velocity due to point extraction. Experiments are carried out in a reduced scale model tunnel with dimensionless of 72 m×1.5 m×1.3 m. A LPG porous gas burner is used as fire source. The smoke flow layering length both upstream and downstream are identified based on temperature profiles measured along the ceiling, for different experiment conditions. CFD simulations with FDS are also performed for the same scenarios. Results show that with combination of point extraction and longitudinal ventilation, the smoke flow layering length is not symmetric where it is longer downstream than that upstream. The upstream smoke layering length decreases, while the downstream layering length increases with increase in longitudinal ventilation velocity; and they both decrease with increase in point extraction velocity. The predictions by the proposed theoretical model agree well with the measurements and simulation results.     

Full-scale experimental study on smoke flow in natural ventilation road tunnel fires with shafts

Three full-scale burning tests were conducted in a natural ventilation city road tunnel with shafts. Fire sources were placed to be at different locations but its peak release heats were all around 5 MW. Results showed that large amounts of smoke and heat were released through shafts. The maximum smoke temperatures under the ceiling were below than 100 °C, and being lower than 110 °C at the safe height farther 3 m away from fires. The maximum smoke spreading horizontal lengths were less than 240 m both in the upwind and downwind. During the late stages, many smoke particles descended from the ceiling and downdraught occurred at shafts due to low smoke temperatures, but the visibility was not very bad and people needn’t evacuate. All These results are valuable for fire protection and construction of natural ventilation road tunnel with shafts.     

Experimental simulations of fire-induced smoke control in tunnels using an “air–helium reduced scale model”: Principle, limitations, results and future

When a fire occurs in a long tunnel, smoke control is crucial for obvious reasons of safety. Ventilation and extraction systems have to be designed with accuracy in order to control the longitudinal motion of the fire-induced smoke and to extract it efficiently in a zone close to the fire source. This paper presents experimental investigations carried out on a small scale tunnel model (scale reduction is 1:20) to study the fire-induced smoke control by longitudinal and transverse ventilation systems. The experimental model is non-thermal and a buoyant release (a mixing of air and helium) is used to represent the fire smoke plume. The main objective of this model is to represent, as well as make possible, the duality between inertial forces (due to ventilation) and buoyant forces. Radiation and heat losses at the walls are not taken into account in this model. At first, the principle of the simulation is widely described. Then, some results are presented for both longitudinal and transverse smoke control by a mechanical ventilation. Finally, perspectives for future investigations are proposed.     

Wind tunnel investigation on influence of fluctuating wind direction on cross natural ventilation

The performance of wind driven natural ventilation is influenced significantly by the boundary conditions set for the wind. In real conditions the wind direction is fluctuating constantly so it is important to consider this fluctuation in experiments and simulations. This paper investigates the influence of fluctuating wind direction on cross-ventilation using wind tunnel experiments with the aim of improving the evaluation accuracy for natural ventilation. A periodically fluctuating wind direction was designed and reproduced in the experiment. Rapid Response FIDs (Flame Ionization Detector) were used to monitor the concentration of tracer gas. An index named diluting flow rate (DFR) is introduced to evaluate the ventilation performance of this kind of experiment. The results indicate that the DFRs of fluctuating cases are approximately 65–100% of the maximum airflow rate and DFR is influenced by the wind speed, the opening size and the wind direction fluctuation. Informed by the experimental data the mechanism of this combined influence is discussed in this paper.     

余姚国际塑料城会展中心屋面的风荷载研究

余姚国际塑料城会展中心位于浙江省余姚市,拥有展览大厅、接待厅和会议中心等多座建筑物．展览大厅的屋面为弧形大跨度拉索焊接箱型钢梁结构,接待厅和会议中心的屋面为工字型钢梁结构．由于大跨度屋面的幅度宽广、形状变化较多,同时又是对风荷载比较敏感的结构,因此风荷载是该项目结构设计时的关键问题之一．本文介绍风洞试验所提供的详细的体型系数分布情况,以及根据此资料进行结构设计时的取值,以保障结构设计安全经济可靠．     

上海铁路南站钢屋盖结构设计

上海铁路南站是上海西南地区的交通枢纽,其钢屋盖采用圆形平面,最大直径为275m,由径向布置的18根Y形主梁和位于中心的顶压环组成,并布置了主索和环索以提高屋盖的抗扭刚度。屋盖体系支承在内、外两圈共54根柱子上,其中外柱设有斜索以提高结构体系的抗侧刚度。大跨度空间结构的特殊风荷载、由温度变化产生的胀缩效应引起的侧向力、结构的整体稳定性以及复杂节点的受力特性成为主要的设计难点。文中介绍了针对上述问题进行的理论分析和试验研究。根据风洞试验的结果并考虑了结构在脉动风荷载作用下的动响应,得到了对应不同响应的等效风荷载;通过在外柱顶设置弹性支座,部分释放了由于温度变化产生的侧向力;通过对整个屋盖体系以及单根主梁分别进行非线性有限元分析,得到了结构的整体稳定系数;通过节点有限元计算,根据应力分布对节点构造进行设计优化,保证了重要节点的安全可靠。     

锦绣中华百艺广场大跨度挑棚结构设计研究

深圳锦绣中华百艺广场挑棚结构采用四边形空间钢管桁架和斜拉索组合的杂交结构,钢管桁架最大悬挑长度为32m。为了加强结构在风荷载作用下的整体稳定,通过反复调整承重索和稳定索的内力和桁架的截面,对结构进行了强度和刚度的优化设计。介绍了该结构的风洞试验结果,结构计算、设计及主要构造措施,并给出了在荷载作用下的结构反应和受力特点。     

大跨度屋盖结构极值风压概率分布特征研究

对两类典型的大跨度屋盖结构形式（球面屋盖和柱面屋盖）分别进行了超过1 000次的重复采样风洞试验,基于所获得的大量极值风压样本,运用广义极值理论和极大似然估计方法系统分析了极值风压的概率分布特征。研究表明：广义极值分布是描述极值风压概率分布的理想模型,多数区域极值风压符合极值Ⅲ型分布,少数尾流区测点极值风压符合极值Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型分布,且极值Ⅱ型分布区域对应的极值风压离散性更强。利用概率分析方法对传统的极值风压估算方法,即峰值因子法的保证率进行了检验,结果表明：峰值因子法无法给出具有一致保证率的极值风压分布,且低估了极值Ⅱ型分布区的最不利负压,误差率在20%~30%之间;应用概率分析方法可以获得具有确定保证率的极值风压,进而从概率意义上对局部极值风压的取值进行合理评估。