Test on Soft Sedimentary Rock Under Different Loading Paths and its Interpretation

Tests on soft sedimentary rock under conventional triaxial and plane-strain compression and/or creep have been conducted. The purpose of the tests is to investigate the influence of intermediate principal stress that may affect the strength and dilatancy of the soft sedimentary rock under different loading paths. Meanwhile, theoretical simulations by an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model were also conducted. Influence of membrane and filter paper was investigated using finite element analysis based on the elasto-viscoplastic model. Furthermore, particular attention was paid to the migration of excessive pore water pressure within a specimen, by continuous monitoring of the inner excessive pore water pressure of specimens and calculation with soil-water coupled finite element-finite difference (FE-FD) method. The shear strength, inherent dilatancy and creep behavior of soft rock were explained experimentally and numerically in detail.     

Numerical simulation and sensitivity analyses of full-scale test embankment with reinforced lightweight geomaterials on soft Bangkok clay

A full-scale test embankment was constructed on soft Bangkok clay using rubber tire chip–sand mixture as a lightweight geomaterial reinforced with geogrid under working stress conditions. The facing of the embankment was made of segmental concrete blocks with rock filled gabion boxes as the facing to the sloping sides. This paper attempts to simulate the behavior of the full-scale test embankment using PLAXIS finite element 2D program by means of undrained analysis in the construction stage and thereafter consolidation analysis was performed during the service stage. The settlement predictions of the soft clay foundation mostly depended on the assumed thickness of the weathered crust and the OCR values of the soft clay layer. The predicted excess pore water pressures were sensitive to the OCR values of the soft clay layer. The lateral wall movements were overpredicted by the analysis due to the partially drained consolidation process at the early stage of the construction. The FEM computed geogrid movements were smaller than the observed field data due to the use of lightweight tire chips-sand backfill. The maximum tension line agreed reasonably well with the coherent gravity bilinear failure plane. The sensitivity analyses of settlements, excess pore water pressures, lateral wall movements, geogrid movements and tensions in geogrid were performed by varying the weathered crust thickness, the OCR values of soft clay, the permeability values of the soft clay and the interface coefficient of the geogrid. The settlements and the excess pore water pressures changed significantly when the OCR and the permeability values of soft clay were varied. The interface coefficient of the geogrid reinforcements affected the lateral wall movements, geogrid movements and tensions in the geogrids. The higher interface coefficient yielded less wall/geogrid movement and resulted in higher tensions in geogrids as expected. The results of analyses show that the FEM analysis using 2D plane strain conditions provided satisfactory predictions for the field performance.     

Thermo-hydro-mechanical-air coupling finite element method and itsapplication to multi-phase problems

In this paper, a finite element method （FEM）-based multi-phase problem based on a newly proposed thermal elastoplastic constitutive model for saturated/unsaturated geomaterial is discussed. A program of FEM named as SOFT, adopting unified field equations for thermo-hydro-mechanical-air （THMA） behavior of geomaterial and using finite element-finite difference （FE-FD） scheme for so/l-water-air three-phase coupling problem, is used in the numerical simulation. As an application of the newly proposed numerical method, two engineering problems, one for slope failure in unsaturated model ground and another for in situ heating test related to deep geological repository of high-level radioactive waste （HLRW）, are simulated. The model tests on slope failure in unsaturated Shirasu ground, carried out by Kitamura et al. （2007）, is simulated in the framework of soil-water-air three-phase coupling under the condition of constant temperature. While the in situ heating test reported by Munoz （2006） is simulated in the same framework under the conditions of variable temperature hut constant air pressure.     

An elastoplastic model for soft sedimentary rock considering inherent anisotropy and confining-stress dependency

The inherent anisotropy of soft sedimentary rock is a very important factor that influences the mechanical behavior of the rock. The confining-stress dependency of the shear stress ratio at the critical state, briefly referred to as the confining-stress dependency, is another important factor that should be taken into consideration when discussing the mechanical behavior of the rock. In this paper, based on an elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model for soft sedimentary rock (Zhang et al., 2005), a new model capable of describing both the inherent anisotropy and the confining-stress dependency of soft sedimentary rock is proposed in the framework of generalized stress space, called the t_ij concept (Nakai and Mihara, 1984), and the subloading yield surface (Hashiguchi and Ueno, 1977, Hashiguchi, 1989). In order to describe the confining-stress dependency, an evolution equation for the shear stress ratio at the critical state M^⁎ is introduced. A transformed stress, proposed by Boehler and Sawczuk (1977) and first introduced into a constitutive model by Oka et al. (2002), is also adopted into the model. In order to examine the performance of the newly proposed model, triaxial compression tests for soft sedimentary rock under different loading conditions were simulated and the results have been compared with the corresponding test results obtained from the authors and other researches available in the literature. It is found that the model can describe both the inherent anisotropy and the confining-stress dependency of soft sedimentary rock using a set of parameters with a fixed value for a given material.     

基于下加载面概念的饱和黏土温度–应力耦合弹塑性模型

温度对黏土力学特性具有重要影响,温度变化将引起黏土的体积变形发生变化,并对其前期固结应力、剪切强度、弹性模量等具有重要影响。基于黏土"热陷"特性,引入热屈服面以描述不同超固结比的黏土在温度升高时所产生的塑性变形,并进一步开展以下工作:(1)建立考虑温度影响的下加载面模型,由于保留了下加载面模型对超固结黏土应力–应变特性优异的描述能力,并考虑了温度对黏土的2种作用(即温度使超固结黏土的超固结比降低和温度塑性应变对屈服面的硬化效应),该模型可以描述温度变化对不同黏土力学特性的复杂影响;(2)证明了所提出的模型严格满足热力学第一、第二定律;(3)采用该模型模拟Pontida clay和MC clay在不同压力下的排水加热试验和在不同温度下的三轴排水/不排水试验,模拟结果与试验结果对比分析表明,模型能合理地描述不同超固结比的黏土在温度变化时产生的体积变形以及温度对黏土强度的影响等。     

Joints in unsaturated rocks: Thermo-hydro-mechanical formulation and constitutive behaviour

A formulation for the coupled analysis of thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) problems in joints is first presented. The work involves the establishment of equilibrium and mass and energy balance equations. Balance equations were formulated taking into account two phases: water and air. The joint element developed was implemented in a general purpose finite element computer code for THM analysis of porous media (Code_Bright). The program was then used to study a number of cases ranging from laboratory tests to large scale in situ tests. A numerical simulation of coupled hydraulic shear tests of rough granite joints is first presented. The tests as well as the model show the coupling between permeability and the deformation of the joints. The experimental investigation was focused on the effects of suction on the mechanical behaviour of rock joints. Laboratory tests were performed in a direct shear cell equipped with suction control. Suction was imposed using a vapour forced convection circuit connected to the cell and controlled by an air pump. Artificial joints of Lilla claystone were prepared. Joint roughness of varying intensity was created by carving the surfaces in contact in such a manner that rock ridges of different tip angles were formed. These angles ranged from 0° (smooth joint) to 45° (very rough joint profile). The geometric profiles of the two surfaces in contact were initially positioned in a “matching” situation. Several tests were performed for different values of suctions (200, 100, and 20 MPa) and for different values of vertical stresses (30, 60, and 150 kPa). A constitutive model including the effects of suction and joint roughness is proposed to simulate the unsaturated behaviour of rock joints. The new constitutive law was incorporated in the code and experimental results were numerically simulated.     

UH模型在双层地基受力变形分析中的应用

基于姚仰平等提出的 UH 模型，将土层的初始超固结比 OCR 引入到 UH 模型的有限元程序中，通过设置不同土层的 OCR 来控制土层的软硬程度，采用 UH 模型的有限元程序对上硬下软双层地基进行了有限元分析。首先将 UH 模型与简化双层地基应力系数法、 Boussinesq 弹性理论计算的附加应力进行了比较，从而证明 UH 模型在分析上硬下软双层地基应力特性方面的优越性，它能够反映上硬下软地基的应力扩散现象；然后用 UH 模型有限元程序计算了土层为不同 OCR 的上硬下软双层地基的附加应力，研究了土层 OCR 对双层地基应力状态的影响；最后对上硬下软双层地基的固结沉降进行了有限元分析，研究了地基沉降、土体应力应变特性和孔压变化规律。     

软岩的应变速率效应研究

对硅藻质软岩试样进行了不同围压和不同加载速率的应变和应力控制式固结不排水三轴试验,试验结果表明,硅藻质软岩具有明显的应变速率效应,加载速率对软岩的强度变形特性有较大的影响。在试验研究的基础上,应用三维弹粘塑性模型,考虑硅藻质软岩的应力–应变关系的时间依存性,模拟了软岩的应变速率效应。数值分析中所采用的参数均由试验确定,对不同应变速率下固结不排水试验的应力–应变关系和有效应力路径的数值计算结果,反映出不同应变速率下软岩的峰值强度和残留强度均随着应变速率的增大而不断提高,与试验结果相吻合;计算结果还反映出与试验结果一致的孔隙水压力变化和应变软化趋势。通过对比分析表明,三维弹粘塑性模型可以较好地描述软岩的应变速率效应。     

Temperature-controlled triaxial compression/creep test device for thermodynamic properties of soft sedimentary rock and corresponding theoretical prediction

In deep geological disposal of high-level nuclear waste,one of the most important subjects is to estimate long-term stability and strength of host rock under high temperature conditions caused by radioactive decay of the waste.In this paper,some experimental researches on the thermo-mechanical characteristics of soft sedimentary rock have been presented.For this reason,a new temperature-controlled triaxial compression and creep test device,operated automatically by a computer-controlled system,whose control software has been developed by the authors,was developed to conduct the thermo-mechanical tests in different thermal loading paths,including an isothermal path.The new device is proved to be able to conduct typical thermo-mechanical element tests for soft rock.The test device and the related testing method were introduced in detail.Finally,some test results have been simulated with a thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model that was also developed by the authors.     

考虑围压效应的修正软岩热弹黏塑性本构模型

 大量的软岩三轴剪切试验表明,不同的围压下,软岩力学特性变化非常大。随着围压的增加,软岩的应变软化和剪胀性变弱;当围压足够大时,甚至表现为应变硬化和剪缩。已有软岩热弹黏塑性本构模型针对不同的围压大小,需要设定不一样的参数,使其应用到数值分析上带来一定困难。为了能用统一参数来描述软岩受围压影响的力学性质,对已有的软岩热黏弹塑性本构模型进行修正。修正模型中所有参数都具有明确的物理意义且都可通过常规三轴试验确定。通过实验数据与计算结果对比,验证了修正本构模型的正确性。     

Departure of soft rock mass from undrained response in drilled shaft and plate load tests

The average degree of consolidation of soft rock mass in the immediate vicinity of the base of drilled shaft or plate load tests was evaluated using the Biot Three-Dimensional Consolidation Theory. The compressibility parameters of soft rock mass were estimated using the contact pressure and displacement relationships obtained from the in situ drilled shaft and plate load tests. It was found that typical drilled shaft and plate load tests on soft rocks are drained to partially drained, with the average degree of consolidation dependent on the rock type and weathering condition, foundation diameter, and the loading stage. It was also determined that drained behavior is observed under service conditions due to the low compressibility of soft rocks in the early stages of loading.     

隧道锚承载特性、变形破坏特征及典型案例分析

通过对国内81座悬索桥锚碇形式的统计分析,同时结合国内外研究资料,分析了目前我国隧道锚应用现状和发展趋势,总结了目前隧道锚在承载变形特征、破坏模式及抗拔力计算等方面的研究现状。介绍了课题组在软岩地层中开展的四次缩尺模型试验,验证了在软岩地层中修建隧道锚的可行性,明确了影响软岩隧道锚稳定性的关键因素。认为以下4个方向是今后研究的重点:(1)研究软岩隧道锚传力机制,探讨软岩隧道锚的破坏形态和长期稳定性;(2)针对不同的破坏模式,研究相应的加固措施;(3)掌握破坏面上应力分布状态是计算锚碇系统承载能力的关键;(4)模型试验和离散元等数值模拟相结合,研究隧道锚在主缆拉力作用下的变形-破裂-失稳演化过程。     

基于原位十字板强度的沿海地区软黏土超固结比分析

超固结比OCR是评价软黏土变形和强度特性的重要参数。基于天津、上海、连云港、深圳、中山和珠海这6个沿海地区软黏土的原位十字板强度,系统地分析这些地区软黏土的固结状态,并探讨其形成机制。研究结果表明:(1)基于原位十字板强度得到的OCR要明显大于室内一维压缩试验的结果,室内压缩试验会显著低估沿海软黏土的OCR;(2)6个地区的OCR随深度的变化规律较为一致,OCR随深度增加,逐渐减小至某一稳定值,浅层均表现出一定的超固结现象,而深层的固结状态则表现出一定的复杂性;(3)现有模型能够解释我国沿海软黏土超固结的成因以及变化规律,浅部的超固结现象源于以风化胶结为主的"表层作用",而深部的超固结则源于次压缩。考虑到软黏土突出的取土扰动问题,这种基于原位十字板强度的软黏土OCR评价及成因分析方法值得在我国沿海地区推广。     

Triaxial extension and tension tests on lime-cement-improved clay

This paper presents the results of a series of undrained and drained isotropic consolidated triaxial extension, tension and compression laboratory tests on lime-cement-improved very soft clay. The main objective of these tests was to investigate the material strength and stiffness properties for stress conditions similar to those expected on the passive side of excavations where a retaining structure is supported by Deep Mixing columns. The different stress paths to failure were obtained by varying the directions of the major and minor principal stresses in a conventional triaxial test cell. The undrained tests conducted at low consolidation stresses, corresponding to depths of approximately 0–10 m below the ground surface, revealed significant differences in undrained strength depending on the directions of the major and minor principal stresses, indicating anisotropic material behavior. Based on the undrained triaxial test results, the relationship among the undrained strength, the effective consolidation stress and the over-consolidation ratio (OCR) is presented for different stress paths to failure.The experimental data from the drained tests show that a failure surface comprised of a shear failure function based on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and a tensile failure function based on the tensile strength and the confining stress can be applied for lime-cement-stabilized clay.     

有机硅材料改性泥岩物性变化规律研究

 以新生代煤系地层中的泥岩作为研究对象,对泥岩进行有机硅材料改性试验。采用静态水接触角法、液氮等温吸附、自由膨胀试验、扫描电镜能谱分析以及常规岩石力学强度试验等物理化学测试手段对比分析泥岩改性前后疏水性、孔裂隙、胀缩性、微结构及物理力学特征等物性变化规律,并分析有机硅改性泥岩的改性机制。结果表明：(1) 有机硅材料可有效改变泥岩的表面结构与性质,岩样表面水滴润湿角由8.51°增至113.34°,由亲水性变为憎水性。(2) 改性后孔裂隙形态变化不大,但总量明显减小,氮气吸附量由26.488 2 cm3/g减少至9.477 3 cm3/g,BET比表面积由13.029 8 m2/g减少至2.856 4 m2/g,孔隙最大孔径由150 nm左右减小至110 nm左右。(3) 岩样自由膨胀率由3.54%减少至0.51%。(4) 改性后岩样化学元素组成比例发生了较大变化,碳元素的大量增加和硫元素的出现表明改性材料已渗入岩样内部。(5) 改性后岩样的强度显著增加,其中单轴抗压强度由9.3 MPa增至26.05 MPa,抗拉强度由1.69 MPa增至3.22 MPa。     

重塑软黏土固结排水三轴试验和本构模型研究

通过室内固结排水三轴剪切试验,分析了重塑饱和软黏土在固结排水条件下三轴剪切过程中的力学特性和变形特征。基于硬化参量与应力路径无关的基本假定,根据曲线积分中的格林公式,构建了新的屈服方程,并建立了一个适合于重塑饱和软黏土的本构模型。采用MATLAB软件编写计算程序,利用新建的重塑软黏土本构模型,对所采用的重塑软黏土和文献报道的Fujinomori黏土的固结排水三轴剪切试验进行理论计算。将试验结果和理论计算结果进行对比,可得出结论:新建的本构模型理论计算结果与重塑饱和软黏土的固结排水三轴试验结果较为吻合,可以较好地描述重塑软黏土在排水条件下的强度与变形特征。     

Calibration of coupled hydro-mechanical properties of grain-based model for simulating fracture process and associated pore pressure evolution in excavation damage zone around deep tunnels

The objective of this paper is to develop a methodology for calibration of a discrete element grain-based model(GBM)to replicate the hydro-mechanical properties of a brittle rock measured in the laboratory,and to apply the calibrated model to simulating the formation of excavation damage zone(EDZ)around underground excavations.Firstly,a new cohesive crack model is implemented into the universal distinct element code(UDEC)to control the fracturing behaviour of materials under various loading modes.Next,a methodology for calibration of the components of the UDEC-Voronoi model is discussed.The role of connectivity of induced microcracks on increasing the permeability of laboratory-scale samples is investigated.The calibrated samples are used to investigate the influence of pore fluid pressure on weakening the drained strength of the laboratory-scale rock.The validity of the Terzaghi’s effective stress law for the drained peak strength of low-porosity rock is tested by performing a series of biaxial compression test simulations.Finally,the evolution of damage and pore pressure around two unsupported circular tunnels in crystalline granitic rock is studied.     

Soil–water–air fully coupling finite element analysis of slope failure in unsaturated ground

In this paper, a program of the finite element method (FEM), named as SOFT, using a finite element–finite difference scheme (FE–FD) for soil–water–air three-phase coupling problems, has been developed based on a rational and simple constitutive model for unsaturated soil proposed by Zhang and Ikariya (2011). In the program, similar to the works by Uzuoka et al. (2009) and Oka et al. (2010b), the FE–FD formulation in saturated condition of soil–water coupling problem, proposed by Oka et al. (1994), has been extended to unsaturated condition in soil–water–air fully coupling scheme, taking the saturation as a state variable. In order to verify the availability of the proposed numerical method, triaxial tests on unsaturated silty clay under fully undrained and unvented conditions, conducted by Oka et al. (2010a), are firstly simulated by the proposed method. The development of pore air pressure and pore water pressure measured in the specimen can be reproduced well by the proposed method. Furthermore, model tests on slope failure in unsaturated Shirasu, carried out by Kitamura et al. (2007), are also simulated by the same numerical method. From the simulation it is known that the slope failure behavior of the model ground observed in the tests can be described, on the whole, with satisfactory accuracy     

考虑围压依存性的软岩结构性下加载面模型

软岩具有典型的弹塑性变形特点,同时由于其内部的胶结作用具有较强的结构性,因此将软岩视作结构性超固结黏土。软岩残余强度随围压变化是软岩峰后力学特性的一个显著特性,在实际工程中具有显著的意义。通过对孔隙比之差的概念进行扩展,使之能够同时考虑软岩的结构性和超固结性,并且给出合理的发展式。通过引入结构性下加载面的概念,在剑桥模型的基础上建立起软岩的结构性下加载面模型。该模型能够反映围压对软岩结构性破坏速率的影响,最终导致不同围压下软岩达到残余强度变形阶段时所保留的残余结构性存在差异,使得软岩的残余强度随围压变化。将理论计算结果与软岩的三轴压缩排水试验结果进行对比分析,结果表明该模型能够较好的描述软岩的应变硬化和软化特性及体积变形剪胀特性,同时能较好的描述软岩的残余强度随围压变化这一力学特性,并给出合理解释。     

A load-transfer function for the side resistance of drilled shafts in soft rock

The shear stress and shear displacement relationship for the rock socket sidewalls is required for the calculation of the drilled shaft butt settlement under the service loads. This paper first introduces a comprehensive database of in situ axial load tests on drilled shafts, anchors and plugs that are embedded in different soft rock formations. The database includes measurements of (i) the initial shear stiffness, (ii) the peak shear stress and (iii) the post-peak reduction in shear stresses for the socket sidewalls. In addition to the load test results, information on soft rock mass mechanical properties and rock socket geometry is also included. It is found that (i) the initial shear stiffness is directly related to the deformation modulus of the soft rock mass and inversely proportional to the rock socket diameter and length, (ii) the mobilized peak shear stress is related to the drained friction angle of the rock mass and normal stress on the socket sidewalls at failure. The rock mass friction angle is related to the rock type and the geological strength index, and the normal stress at failure is directly related to deformation modulus of rock mass and inversely to the product of rock socket length and diameter, and (iii) the post-peak brittleness is related to the soft rock type and the post-peak shear displacement. An empirical framework for the prediction of the load-transfer function for side resistance of sockets in soft sedimentary and fine-grained rock is developed using the load test database introduced herein. The proposed framework accounts for the socket geometrical characteristics, and the rock mass engineering properties. The pre-peak range in the load-transfer function is modeled using a hyperbolic function, and the post-peak range is modeled using a brittleness index to account for the reduction in shear stresses with post-peak displacement.