Predictive modeling and experimental results for residual stresses in laser hardening of AISI 4140 steel by a high power diode laser

A predictive model for residual stresses induced in a laser hardened workpiece of AISI 4140 steel with no melting has been developed and experimentally verified. A transient three-dimensional thermal and kinetic model is first solved to obtain the temperature and solid phase history of the workpiece, which is then sequentially coupled to a three-dimensional stress model to predict residual stresses. The phase transformation strains are added to the thermal strains at each time step during the heating and cooling cycles to obtain the resultant residual stresses in the workpiece. The importance of considering phase transformation has been explained through the comparison of the magnitudes of residual stresses with and without the inclusion of phase transformation kinetics. The model predicted strong compressive residual stresses of about 200 MPa in the heat affected zone due to austenite-to-martensite transformation. The predictions matched well with the X-ray diffraction measurements.     

Predictive modeling and experimental results for laser hardening of AISI 1536 steel with complex geometric features by a high power diode laser

This paper presents predictive modeling and experimental results on laser hardening of AISI 1536 steel shafts with a complex geometric feature. A three-dimensional thermal model is used to predict the workpiece temperature distribution, which is coupled to a two-dimensional kinetic model to predict the resultant hardness and phase distribution. Surface temperature measurements are performed to validate the thermal model, while the kinetic model is validated through furnace hardening and laser hardening experiments. A 2.5-mm case depth is achieved on simple geometry parts, while a 1.5-mm case depth is obtained on parts with a groove of 2.0-mm radius. The case hardness values and distributions show good agreement with predicted results and are found to be uniform throughout, with the values between 55 and 57 in Rockwell C.     

A quantitative analysis of the effect of laser transformation hardening on crack driving force in steels

A mechanical model of a laser transformation hardening specimen with a crack in the middle of the hardened layer is developed to quantify the effects of the residual stress and hardness gradient on crack driving force in terms of J-integral. It is assumed that the crack in the middle of the hardened layer is created after laser transformation hardening. Using a Double Cantilever Beam model, the analytic solutions, which can be used to quantify the effects of the residual stress and the hardness gradient resulting from laser transformation hardening on crack driving force, are obtained. A numerical example shows the crack driving force decrease is very sensitive to the residual compressive stress increase.     

Laser surface hardening of martensitic stainless steel hollow parts

This paper deals with numerical simulation and experimental validation of laser heat treatment of an industrial axisymmetric hollow mechanical part by means of a strategy based on helical tracks. This component, made of AISI 420B martensitic stainless steel, features a low wall thickness and, according to this, it is not easily treatable by means of laser surface hardening. The work carried out was aimed at demonstrating that numerical simulation allows a drastic reduction of the experimental activity and that it makes possible to prove a very high sensitivity of the results to process parameters variation.     

Influence of laser hardening and resulting microstructure on fatigue properties of carbon steels

Cylindrical specimens of a CSN 12050 carbon steel, equivalent to the UNS G 10420 steel, with two different initial microstructures, normalized and heat treated, were surface processed without melting by a 2.5 kW, CO₂ laser to study the effects of laserbeam hardening and resulting microstructure on fatigue properties and mechanisms. Two configurations of circumferential laser passes were made, resulting in one and three separate surface hardened lines, respectively. Fatigue resistance was studied using alternating bend tests. A detailed metallographic study and x-ray measurements of surface stresses were carried out. It was shown that the laser beam hardening under different conditions either reduced or slightly improved the fatigue life.     

Numerical evaluation of the reflectivity coefficient in laser surface hardening simulation

This paper reports the results concerning the simulation of a laser surface hardening process of a cylindrical surface. In particular it focuses on the problems related to the definition of the physical parameter values necessary in order to achieve an accurate and reliable simulation. The strict dependency of laser process simulation results on the physical parameters describing the target material is, in fact, a well known matter, especially considering that the values of these parameters change during the process dependently on temperature and time. Moreover in laser surface hardening this problem is even more important because melting of the target material should be avoided, surface roughness plays an important role and, sometimes, the surface is coated with absorbent layers. These factors increase the complexity of the simulations and make the evaluation of the physical parameters more difficult and critical. The results presented in this paper are obtained on AISI420B steel, coated with graphite and treated with a direct diode laser. Considering the above mentioned conditions, a plausible temperature dependent reflectivity coefficient was evaluated and its robustness was investigated. This reflectivity coefficient can be used with a good approximation for the simulation of laser hardening treatments of many carbon steels.     

FEM modeling of induction hardening processes in steel

A modeling system for analyzing the integrated induction hardening processes was developed based on a general-purpose finite element program, with the capability to analyze the whole process from electromagnetic-induced thermal heating to final hardening. A coupled electromagnetic-thermal model was applied to study the induction heating process, which includes consideration of nonlinear material characteristics on temperature. Also, arrangement of AC current density distribution was conducted to simulate practical induction coil structure and magnetic concentrator effects to achieve desired heating patterns for later quenching and hardening analysis. Quenching analysis can provide cooling curve at any location in a heat-treated workpiece based on heat transfer principles. In hardening analysis, phase transformation was studied and an algorithm was developed to determine volumetric content of micro-structural constituents formed from austenitized phase in quenching process, based on analysis of the interaction between cooling curve and material time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram. Finally, hardness value was converted from martensite content based on a developed formulation. Validation was preliminary conducted based on comparison of hardening pattern of induction hardening of an automotive spindle with complex surface.     

Characterization of laser treated steels using instrumented indentation by cylindrical flat punch

The aim of the present work is to assess the possibility of predicting the thickness of the hardened layers produced by High Power Diode Laser (HPDL) heat treatment. Instrumented indentation by cylindrical flat punch was carried out in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the surface-hardening heat treatments on milled AISI 1040 steel substrates by varying laser operational parameters as well as the morphology of steel substrates. In particular, the trend in load-penetration depth were obtained, supporting the identification of the depth at which the hardened layer starts transferring the deformation to the softer substrate, that is, the Critical Transition Depth (CTD) in addition to identifying the overall degree of hardening reached by the laser treated material. On the other hand, hardness profiles and the thickness of hardened layers were also monitored by using combination of Vickers micro-hardness tests and standard metallographic characterizations.Analytical examinations and simple mathematical simulations of the experimental results coming from indentation tests and conventional testing procedures showed good correlation between the extent of the heat affected zone (HAZ), hardness and CTD. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that indentation tests are an effective, sensitive, fast, and low-cost characterization technique for heat treated steels.     

激光强化技术在拉深模的应用

通过具体的实例,不仅阐述了使用激光强化技术解决拉深模具压边圈拉伤问题,而且通过模具材料及热处理的选择,进行激光强化处理,改变模具压边圈传统的制造工艺,并对模具的加工手段、方法、材料的选用等方面进行深入的探讨和研究.本文还阐述了激光强化处理的性能特点.模具采用激光强化技术后在使用寿命、降低废品率方面都有明显效果,数套模具验证结论显示了激光强化技术在模具应用的广泛前景.     

激光相变硬化在Cr12汽车模具材料表面强化中的应用研究

利用不同的激光工艺参数对汽车模具Cr12材料表面进行激光相变硬化试验,探讨了激光工艺参数对激光相变硬化层深度的影响,研究了横向和沿深度方向显微硬度的分布情况以及硬化层的组织结构的变化。研究结果表明,采取适当的工艺措施,表面硬度在不同程度上都得到了提高,同时可以消除表面裂纹,从而成倍地提高了汽车模具的使用寿命。     

基于ANSYS的塑料模具钢激光相变硬化数值模拟

采用有限单元法对激光相变硬化三维瞬态温度场进行数值模拟,利用ANSYS的APDL语言编写了温度场计算程序,分别计算了一定工艺条件下SM45钢和3Cr2MnNiMo钢激光相变硬化处理过程的三维瞬态温度场并预测了激光相变硬化层的厚度。分析中还分别考虑了不动热源和移动热源的情况,并把在两种情况下得到的硬化层作了比较。     

Laser transformation hardening of carbon steel sheets using a heat sink

A heat-sink assisted laser transformation hardening method is presented as a way to enhance the hardenability of carbon steel sheets. In this study, the thermal conductivity of the heat sink and the thermal contact resistance between the steel sheet and the heat sink were identified as the two primary parameters for the process. Using a process map approach, the heat-treatability of steel sheets was studied theoretically focusing on carbon diffusion and cooling time characteristics. For validation purposes, 2 mm thick DP 590 and boron steel sheets were laser-hardened using four types of heat sink: stainless steel, steel, copper, and no heat sink. Surface hardness, hardening width and depth were measured and analyzed over a wide range of process parameters. From this study, it was revealed that, when a heat sink is used, both cooling and carbon diffusion characteristics become roughly on par with those of the thick plate case, but the heat treatable region remains similar to that of the no heat sink case. The use of a heat sink was found to be an effective way of enhancing the hardenability of steel sheets and the amount of enhancement is largely proportional to the heat sink thermal conductivity.     

Laser hardening of gear teeth using a powerful fibre laser

Results of investigations into the possibilities of fibre lasers are presented and it is shown that these lasers can be used for superfast laser heat treatment of steels to a depth of up to 2 mm without melting the surface of the component.     

大功率半导体激光相变硬化U74轨钢的试验

使用自制的大功率半导体激光器对U74轨钢进行了相变硬化.结果表明,硬化层硬度值可以达到800～900 HV0.01,是基体硬度的3～4倍,沿半导体激光器光斑的不同轴向扫描对硬化层有很大影响,沿慢轴方向扫描得到的硬化层深度要远高于快轴方向,硬度值沿深度方向在过渡区附近迅速下降至基体硬度.试验表明,大功率半导体激光器在材料表面处理领域有着较为广阔的应用前景.     

Characterization of deformation induced surface hardening during cryogenic turning of AISI 347

The use of cryogenic cooling in material removal processes has been reported by several researchers. The objectives were enhanced tool life and an expanded range of machinable materials. In this paper, a novel application of cryogenic cooling is presented: its use achieve direct surface hardening of metastable austenitic steels during cutting. Metastable austenite can transform into martensite due to plastic deformation if a sufficiently low temperature is maintained. In order to use this effect during cutting, cryogenic conditions must be maintained at all times. With this approach, cutting and hardening can be combined in one process.     

激光相变硬化-离子渗硫复合改性层的性能

用SEM、EDS和XPS等方法对35CrMoA钢激光相变硬化和低温离子渗硫复合改性层进行形貌观察和成分分析,使用显微硬度计测量复合改性层横截面的显微硬度分布,使用电化学腐蚀系统测试复合改性层在3.5%NaCl溶液中的耐蚀性。结果表明,渗硫层是一个连续的黑色带状层,与基体之间没有明显过渡,厚度在2～5μm之间,主要成分是FeS及FeSO4。渗硫层表面平整疏松,局部有小坑和"火山口"形貌。复合改性层是理想的摩擦表面,自腐蚀电位为-571 mV,自腐蚀电流密度为26.02μA/cm2,与基材相比,耐蚀性有一定的提高。     

Heat treatment of superbainitic steels

Abstract

Two experimental high silicon high carbon steels (with 5 and 24 ppm of boron separately) have been investigated for the development of superbainite structure. After austenitisation, the specimens were held respectively at three different isothermal transformation temperatures (150, 200, and 300°C) for a variety of time intervals. The microstructures were examined via optical metallography (with microhardness measurement) and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that after isothermal transformation at 200°C for 10 days, both steels produced a high volume fraction of sheaf structures with nanometre scaled bainitic ferrite subunits, which contributed to an ultrahigh microhardness, up to 675 HV. It was also found that adding 24 ppm of boron accelerated the bainitic transformation in the early stage of isothermal transformation at 200°C, but did not have a significant effect on reducing the finish transformation time. Both isothermal temperature of 150 and 300°C could not lead to the development of high amount of bainite.     

冲压模具激光表面强化的搭接工艺研究

针对激光相变强化搭接带存在的回火软化等问题,对激光强化的球墨铸铁材料QT700-2搭接区的显微硬度、表面粗糙度、物相变化等进行了测试,并分析了强化机理。结果表明:选用合理的搭接率等工艺参数,球墨铸铁激光搭接强化后的硬度可达到50HRC以上,调节搭接宽度可以避免搭接区的回火软化问题。多道搭接强化后表层的马氏体组织呈区域性交错分布,材料表面形成非均匀、多尺度强化结构,强化后的表面具有良好的耐磨性和耐疲劳性。通过上述结果,对材料激光搭接强化的工艺参数进行了合理的优化。     

非比例加载路径下TRIP钢的应变硬化行为

通过大试样拉伸与小试样拉伸相结合的方法,分析冷轧TRIP780钢的瞬时应变硬化速率随应变水平的变化规律,详细讨论不同应变路径下TRIP钢应力应变曲线体现出的硬化特性,并对微观组织的演变进行扫描电镜观察。结果表明,TRIP钢不仅具有较高的初始硬化能力,而且具有较长应变范围内的后续硬化能力;非比例加载路径下TRIP钢应力应变曲线表现出了软化效应、瞬时硬化能力和相交效应;加载路径的改变,可引起位错的运动方向和稳定性发生改变,从而影响硬化行为。