US energy conservation and efficiency policies: Challenges and opportunities

Expanding energy conservation and efficiency in every sector nationwide is one of the most cost-effective instruments for reducing US energy imports, the trade deficit and energy’s environmental impacts. For these reasons, energy conservation and efficiency have been essential elements of US energy policy since the oil embargos and price spikes of the 1970s. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) is the latest federal legislation to expand and strengthen US energy conservation and efficiency policies, programs, and practices. Specifically, EISA and its recent predecessor, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05), contain almost 200 titles with new provisions for energy conservation and efficiency aimed at improvements in vehicle fuel economy. These provisions include efficiency of appliances and lighting; energy savings in residential, commercial, and government buildings; the efficiency of industrial manufacturing plants; and the efficiency of electric power delivery and end-use. These actions have begun to contribute to new federal, state, and local policies, programs, and practices across the US, and expectations are high for increases in the level of energy savings. This paper summarizes the history of US energy conservation and efficiency policies, outlines EISA’s and EPAct05’s key provisions, and considers prospects for the future.     

Energy conservation and emission reduction policies for the electric power industry in China

Because of China's increasingly limited energy supplies and serious environmental pollution, much attention has been paid to conserving energy and reducing emissions to help the country's economy achieve sustainable development. As the electric power industry is the largest consumer of coal resources in China and also emits high levels of air pollutants each year, the Chinese government has enacted many technical and economic policies for energy conservation and emission reduction in the last few years. These policies are summarized in this paper, along with relevant laws and medium- and long-term plans, all of which address ideas such as adjusting the power generation mix, promoting demand-side management, introducing energy-efficient scheduling, and installing desulfurization units. The paper also assesses the results of these policies by analyzing several key indicators of energy consumption and emissions. The analysis shows that although some progress has been made in conserving energy and reducing emissions, substantial work is still required for China to catch up with developed countries. Some suggestions for future work are provided.     

Energy conservation in traffic

This paper discusses the energy that is being wasted in the transport section in Amman due to three main factors: namely, the time delay at the major traffic light intersections, the warming up periods of vehicles, and the drag force acting on heavy vehicles. It was found that the fuel which is being used due to the first and second factors contribute 2.2 and 3.0% to the total annual fuel cost in Jordan. Finally, recommendations and suggestions are given to cut down the fuel consumption in Amman due to the above mentioned factors.     

Consumer energy conservation policy An analytical approach

To capture the potential energy savings available in the consumer sector an analytical approach to conservation policy is proposed. A policy framework is described and the key constructs including a payoff matrix analysis and a consumer impact analysis are discussed. Implications derived from the considerable amount of prior consumer research are provided to illustrate the effect on the design and implementation of future programmes. The result of this analytical approach to conservation policy — economic stability and economic security — are goals well worth pursuing.     

Energy conservation in the industrial sector of developing countries

This paper begins by examining the most energy-intensive industries and methods by which fuel efficiency can be improved. Next the author analyses the economics of energy conservation using specific case studies drawn from India. It is shown that investing in energy efficiency is more economical Btu per Btu than investing in the enhancement of domestic energy resources. The author also assesses changes in the economics of conservation for private firms when there are government incentives. Finally government policies that can overcome economic and non-economic disincentives for investing in energy conservation are examined.     

Energy conservation potential in Taiwanese textile industry

Since Taiwan lacks sufficient self-produced energy, increasing energy efficiency and energy savings are essential aspects of Taiwan’s energy policy. This work summarizes the energy savings implemented by 303 firms in Taiwan’s textile industry from the on-line Energy Declaration System in 2008. It was found that the total implemented energy savings amounted to 46,074 ton of oil equivalent (TOE). The energy saving was equivalent to 94,614 MWh of electricity, 23,686 kl of fuel oil and 4887 ton of fuel coal. It represented a potential reduction of 143,669 ton in carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the annual carbon dioxide absorption capacity of a 3848 ha plantation forest. This study summarizes energy-saving measures for energy users and identifies the areas for making energy saving to provide an energy efficiency baseline.     

Energy conservation : An elasticity of substitution approach

Long-term forecasts of demand, used in energy planning, are based on assumptions alleged to be reasonable at the time of projections. The political debate can then focus on whether these assumptions are indeed reasonable. Common considers two sets of projections, and estimates the implicit price and income elasticities, thereby translating assumptions entailed in two different reports into concepts which are directly comparable. It is argued here that this approach need be taken a step further and elasticities of substitution between energy and other inputs should be calculated. Possibilities of energy conservation could then be taken into account.     

Energy conservation through recycling

A critical review of the literature is used to suggest best estimates of the energy savings due to recycling one tonne of a number of materials. the use of these estimates is demonstrated by a number of illustrative applications. Substantial energy savings may be made by recycling most metals or paper. the savings from reclaiming glass cullet are marginal, although there is considerable potential for energy conservation through the substitution of returnable for non-returnable bottles. the recycling of materials already saves some 5 per cent of the U.K. total energy requirement, and this contribution could potentially be doubled. the recovery of fuel products and/or materials from solid waste is also shown to be an attractive and efficient energy source.     

Energy conservation in subway systems by controlled acceleration and deceleration

The 1975 electric bill for propulsion in the New York City subway system was close to 90 million dollars. This paper addresses the question of how a subway motorman should run his train in order to minimize this energy consumption. It is shown that using maximum acceleration followed at the appropriate time by coasting, and then braking at the maximum acceptable rate, gives a particularly low energy consumption for typical subway trains (although slightly different velocity profiles can be better under appropriate circumstances). This velocity profile is relatively easy to implement, and has now been proved effective in experimental tests. As a result of recommendations reported here, the New York City Transit Authority ran idealized tests of the profile, followed by recently completed tests in revenue service which demonstrated an 18.4 per cent decrease in energy consumption using a daily weighted increase of 4.25 per cent in trip time. This paper also evaluates the energy saved using an alternative method involving equipment modification for field shunting in the series mode.     

Energy conservation programmes A review of state initiatives in the USA

In the USA states have initiated four types of non-utility programmes to promote energy conservation and renewable energy: tax incentives, grant and loan programmes, regulations and standards, and research and development programmes. Based on a survey, there is a wide variation among the states in the extent to which these programmes have been initiated and implemented. The states have conducted few evaluation studies assessing the effectiveness of their programmes. There appear to be two factors influencing a state's involvement in these programmes: the dependence of the state on outside energy sources and the political nature of the state.     

Energy conservation in electrical water heating in buckets

In the present paper a techno-economic analysis for electrical water heating in buckets is presented, and the methods for improving the efficiency of the use of electricity have been evaluated. The mathematical model developed has been validated by experiments. The use of a floating cover is seen to increase the efficiency of utilization of electricity in winter conditions by about 20 per cent. Assuming conservatively a hot water demand of 40 litres/day in the winter season, the use of a cover costing Rs 8 leads to a saving of about Rs 56 per year in the electricity bill.     

Energy conservation topics at energex ′84

International Energy conservation developments and programmes for institutional buildings, industrial processes, agricultural operations, residential buildings, land use planning and transport services are summarized. The topics were presented by experts to an international audience at ENERGEX ′84 held in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada during May 1984.     

Energy conservation investments: A comparison between China and the US

Growth in energy consumption in China has soared from 2001 to 2004, driven largely by a booming economy and heavy investment in infrastructure and housing. In response, China has poured billions of dollars of investment in building power plants—at a rate of one large power plant (1000 MW) per week. In fact, China in 2004 has added the entire generating capacity of California or Spain in a single year. In contrast, investment in energy conservation projects has weakened considerably in recent years. This paper examines trends in energy efficiency investments in China and the US. The comparison highlights the potential of energy conservation investments in addressing China's current energy crisis as well as the inadequacy of such investments in China. Finally, the paper outlines a few scenarios for appropriate levels of investments in energy efficiency in China in the future.     

Energy conservation by using energy efficient electric motors

This paper deals with energy conservation by installing energy-efficient (EE) motors instead of standard efficiency motors. This transition become a necessity as a direct result of limitation in energy sources and escalating energy prices. As electric motors use about three quarters of the total electric energy in Bahrain, attempts to conserve the energy consumed by electric motors recently received intensive research efforts. Therefore, the energy efficiencies of energy efficient motors are compared with those of standard efficiency motors ranging from 5 to 300 HP. To provide more clarification in this regard, full design details of 200 HP standard-efficiency and energy-efficient motors are compared. Pay back periods when replacing standard-efficiency motors with energy-efficient motors, with reference to Bahrain's market, have been discussed. Finally the energy-conservation capability of EE motors in the petrochemical industry has been discussed.     

Energy use and changing energy policies of Trinidad and Tobago

Trinidad and Tobago is an energy rich country that has been using energy with low efficiency and low socio-economic benefit. Recently, the focus of the government has changed to emphasize energy efficiency, conservation and management in its energy policies. This paper reviews the energy consumption patterns of Trinidad and Tobago, as well as its new policy focus on energy efficiency.     

Energy conservation in the greenhouse system: A steady state analysis

We have evaluated the five typical shape of the greenhouse for energy conservation in winter months for a composite climate. An expression for the plant temperature has been used for steady state analysis. Numerical computation has been carried out for the climatic condition of Delhi, India. The evaluation of the shape of the greenhouse has been done for a given floor area. Additional energy required from other fuels to maintain the necessary temperature has also been considered. It has been observed that a standard peak uneven span is suitable for minimum use of liquefied petroleum gas for a given favourable plant temperature. Experimental validation of the thermal model has also been carried out.     

Energy conservation on Nova Scotia farms: Baseline energy data

Direct energy use is a small but essential component of the farm greenhouse gas (GHG) budget. Improvements in energy efficiency and renewable energy can help reduce farm operating costs, improve air quality and reduce GHG emission levels. Energy conservation is especially important in Nova Scotia (NS), Canada, where fossil fuels, particularly coal, remain the primary source of electrical generation. Responses from mail surveys were used to establish baseline data on a cross-section of NS farms with respect to direct energy costs and usage to demonstrate differences in farm type and size. A 32% (N=224) response rate was achieved. Based on this survey, the average energy bill for a NS farm in 2004 was $11,228, with most (61.7%) of their energy cost attributable to the purchase of petroleum products. Almost all farmers (96.4%) indicated that their energy cost was a primary concern. Farmers identified the operation of vehicles and mobile equipment, as well as lighting and heating as having the greatest energy requirements in their operations. Energy usage varied with farm type and size. NS farms consumed 1.2 petajoules of energy equivalent to 127 kilotonnes of CO₂ with 52.7% of emissions from electricity use in 2004.     

Energy use and conservation in the residential sector Methodological questions and policy prescriptions

Whatever future energy path is chosen in the USA, it will be critical to know energy supply and demand patterns at the micro (family) level. This article examines public surveys which gather information at this level and then suggests possibilities for further research.     

Energy conservation and productivity growth: Can we have both?

Rapid multifactor productivity growth and strong improvements in energy efficiency have occurred simultaneously over long periods of time in the USA. Not so, however, after 1973 when energy efficiency made substantial gains while productivity growth languished. Based upon an examination of US data, this article argues that the key to achieving both energy conservation and multifactor productivity growth at the same time has been to use energy in conjunction with technologies that achieve more efficient means of combining all production inputs, instead of emphasizing technologies in which energy conservation alone is the over-riding objective.     

Energy conservation in the one-phase supercooled Stefan problem

A one-phase reduction of the one-dimensional two-phase supercooled Stefan problem is developed. The standard reduction, employed by countless authors, does not conserve energy and a recent energy conserving form is valid in the limit of small ratio of solid to liquid conductivity. The present model assumes this ratio to be large and conserves energy for physically realistic parameter values. Results for three one-phase formulations are compared to the two-phase model for parameter values appropriate to supercooled salol (similar values apply to copper and gold) and water. The present model shows excellent agreement with the full two-phase model.