Memory effects of transformation textures in steel and its prediction by the double Kurdjumov–Sachs relation

The phenomenon that the transformation texture near the initial texture reproduces after the phase transformation cycle such as ferrite (α, body-centered cubic) → austenite (γ, face-centered cubic) → α is called a texture memory. In this study, the texture change in a 0.1% C–1% Mn hot-rolled steel sheet during the α → γ → α transformation cycle was studied via neutron diffraction and the transformation texture prediction based on a variant selection rule that we call the double Kurdjumov–Sachs (K–S) relation. The texture change observed by neutron diffraction, which clearly showed the texture memory, could be quantitatively reproduced by the proposed variant selection rule adopted into the calculation method based on the spherical harmonics expansion of orientation distribution functions. Therefore, it is most likely that the texture memory in steel is caused by the preferential selection of those K–S variants that reduce the interfacial energy between a precipitate and two adjoining parent phase grains at the same time, which we call the double K–S relation.     

A novel thermomechanical approach to produce a fine ferrite and low-temperature bainitic composite microstructure

A novel thermomechanical processing was developed in the present study to produce a unique microstructure consisting of fine ferrite grains (i.e. ～4 μm on average) and low-temperature bainite in a relatively low-carbon steel with a modest hardenability. The thermomechanical route consisted of warm deformation of supercooled austenite followed by reheating in the ferrite region and then cooling to the bainitic transformation regime (i.e. 400–200 °C). The low-temperature bainite consisted of high dislocation density bainitic laths and very fine retained austenite films. This microstructure offered a high work hardening rate leading to a unique combination of ultimate tensile strength and elongation. This was due to the presence of ductile fine ferrite grains and hard low-temperature bainitic ferrite laths with retained austenite films. The microstructural characteristics of bainite were studied using optical microscopy in conjunction with scanning and transmission electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction and atom probe tomography techniques.     

Texture inheritance and variant selection through an hcp–bcc–hcp phase transformation

In situ phase transformation experiments have been carried out using neutron diffraction to monitor the texture evolution during the α → β → α phase transformation in a common zirconium alloy. In contrast to recently reported results by other authors, there is clear evidence of a strong variant selection occurring during the α → β transformation and a weaker variant selection during the β → α transformation. Modeling of the texture change associated with the phase transformation has been successful in describing the variant selection occurring during the α → β transformation, and gives insights into the selection occurring during the β → α transformation. The results are relevant to processing of both zirconium and titanium.     

Three-dimensional atom probe analysis of solute distribution in thermomechanically processed TRIP steels

Complex multiphase microstructures were obtained in transformation induced plasticity C–Mn–Si–(Nb–Al–Mo) steels by simulated controlled thermomechanical processing. These microstructures were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and three-dimensional atom probe tomography (APT), which was used to determine the partitioning of elements between different phases and microconstituents. The measured carbon concentration (∼0.25 at%) in the ferrite of carbide-free bainite was higher than expected from para-equilibrium between the austenite and ferrite, while the concentrations of substitutional elements were the same as in the parent austenite suggesting that incomplete bainite transformation occurred. In contrast, the distribution of substitutional elements between the ferrite lath and austenite in carbide-containing bainite indicated a complete bainite reaction. The average carbon content in the retained austenite (3.2 ± 1.6 at%) was somewhat higher than the T₀ limit. On the basis of the APT measured composition, the calculated M_s temperatures for retained austenite were above room temperature, indicating its low chemical stability.     

The effect of aluminium and phosphorus on the stability of individual austenite grains in TRIP steels

We have performed in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction experiments to assess the influence of aluminium and phosphorus on the austenite stability in low-alloyed transformation-induced plasticity steels during the high-temperature bainitic holding and the subsequent martensitic transformation during cooling to temperatures between room temperature and 100 K. Although the addition of aluminium increases the chemical driving force for the formation of bainitic ferrite plates significantly, the phosphorus exerts a larger influence on the bainitic transformation kinetics. Consequently, the addition of phosphorus leads to a higher degree of carbon enrichment and a narrower grain volume distribution of the metastable austenite. The stability of the individual austenite grains with respect to their martensitic transformation depends on both the local carbon content and the grain volume for austenite grains smaller than 20 μm³. The presence of aluminium and phosphorus further stabilizes the austenite grains.     

Low strain rate deformation behavior of a Cr–Mn austenitic steel at −80 °C

The deformation behavior of a Cr–Mn austenitic steel during interrupted low strain rate uniaxial tensile testing at ?80 °C has been studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron backscatter diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Continuous γ → ε → α′ martensite transformation was observed until failure. High dislocation densities were estimated in the austenite phase (～10¹⁵ m^?2), and for the α′-martensite they were even an order of magnitude higher. Dislocation character analysis indicated that increasing deformation gradually changed the dislocation character in the austenite phase to edge type, whereas the dislocations in α′-martensite were predominantly screw type. XRD analyses also revealed significant densities of stacking faults and twins in austenite, which were also seen by transmission electron microscopy. At low strains, the deformation mode in austenite was found to be dislocation glide, with an increasing contribution from twinning, as evidenced by an increasing incidence of ∑3 boundaries at high strains. The deformation mode in α′-martensite was dominated by dislocation slip.     

In situ neutron diffraction study of texture evolution and variant selection during the α → β → α phase transformation in Ti–6Al–4V

In the present study, in situ phase transformation experiments have been carried out using neutron diffraction to monitor the texture evolution during the α → β → α phase transformation in Ti–6Al–4V with and without 0.4% yttrium additions. The aim of adding yttrium was to control β grain growth above the β transus by Zener pinning. First, both alloys were thermomechanically processed to generate a similar starting α texture and grain morphology. Subsequently, both materials were heat treated above the β transus up to 1250 °C followed by furnace cooling to 210 °C to promote diffusional phase transformation starting from β grain boundaries. In situ texture measurements were taken during α → β → α phase transformation starting at room temperature, 800 °C, 950 °C, above β transus (1050 and 1250 °C), and back to near room temperature. The degree of variant selection was determined by comparing the predicted transformation texture during heating and cooling based on the Burgers relationship and the assumption of no variant selection with the measured textures. It was found that during heating β grows from the pre-existing β and that the β texture evolved even before the β transus was exceeded. The β texture strengthened noticeably above the β transus in the case of conventional Ti–6Al–4V but not Ti–6Al–4V–0.4Y, which was related to β grain coarsening. The level of variant selection was clearly affected by grain coarsening and the formation of β texture components that contribute to the 〈1 1 1〉//normal direction (ND) γ fibre texture rotated about 10° away from ND.     

Deformation mechanisms of a 20Mn TWIP steel investigated by in situ neutron diffraction and TEM

The deformation mechanisms and associated microstructure changes during tensile loading of an annealed twinning-induced plasticity steel with chemical composition Fe–20Mn–3Si–3Al–0.045C (wt.%) were systematically investigated using in situ time-of-flight neutron diffraction in combination with post mortem transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The initial microstructure of the investigated alloy consists of equiaxed γ grains with the initial α′-phase of ～7% in volume. In addition to dislocation slip, twinning and two types of martensitic transformations from the austenite to α′- and ε-martensites were observed as the main deformation modes during the tensile deformation. In situ neutron diffraction provides a powerful tool for establishing the deformation mode map for elucidating the role of different deformation modes in different strain regions. The critical stress is 520 MPa for the martensitic transformation from austenite to α′-martensite, whereas a higher stress (>600 MPa) is required for actuating the deformation twin and/or the martensitic transformation from austenite to ε-martensite. Both ε- and α′-martensites act as hard phases, whereas mechanical twinning contributes to both the strength and the ductility of the studied steel. TEM observations confirmed that the twinning process was facilitated by the parent grains oriented with 〈1 1 1〉 or 〈1 1 0〉 parallel to the loading direction. The nucleation and growth of twins are attributed to the pole and self-generation formation mechanisms, as well as the stair-rod cross-slip mechanism.     

Texture memory and variant selection during phase transformation of a zirconium alloy

The texture evolution of cold-rolled Zircaloy-2 sheets during the α → β → α phase transformation was characterized in situ using high-energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction. It was found that the strong rolling texture is initially modified during heating, evidencing recrystallization, after which it is weakened by a complete phase transformation. Hardly any variant selection was observed during α → β phase transformation. When the material was rapidly cooled back from above the β-transus, the α texture exhibited moderated variant selection. In a study of the effect of maximum heating temperature on the inherited α texture, it was found that incomplete transformations, even with peak temperatures nearing the β-transus, resulted in a perfect texture memory in spite of dramatic morphological changes in the microstructure.     

New insights to the promoted bainitic transformation in prior deformed austenite in a Fe-C-Mn-Si alloy

The varying trends of the amount and rate of bainitic transformation with strains at low temperature were investigated through metallography, X-ray diffraction and dilatometry. The results show that deformation at 573 K promotes bainitic transformation, whereas the promotion degree on bainite transformation by ausforming is nonlinear with strains. The amount of bainite in deformed austenite first increases and then decreases with the increase of strains. There exists a maximum value of the promotion effect corresponding to a critical small strain at a low temperature. Bainitic transformation rate can be increased by ausforming at low temperature, whereas a large strain weakens the acceleration effect. The amount of bainite in deformed materials is synthetically depended on the effect of enhanced nucleation and repressed growth. In addition, the volume fraction of retained austenite is not completely consistent with carbon content, indicating that ausforming plays a important role in determining the amount of austenite.     

Experimental evidence and thermodynamics analysis of high magnetic field effects on the austenite to ferrite transformation temperature in Fe–C–Mn alloys

The non-isothermal decomposition of austenite into ferrite and pearlite in Fe–xC–1.5 wt.% Mn steels with x = 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 wt.% C is investigated by in situ dilatometry and microstructure characterization in magnetic fields up to 16 T. The global shift towards higher temperatures of the respective austenite, ferrite + austenite and ferrite + pearlite stability regions is experimentally quantified. A systematic increase in the ferrite area fraction and proportional reduction of the Vickers hardness values with the magnetic field intensity are also reported. Moreover, the steels’ magnetizations, measured up to 3.5 T and 1100 K, are used to calculate the magnetic contribution to the free energy of the transformation and to account thermodynamically for the field dependence of the transformation temperature. The impact of magnetic field is found to be greater with increasing carbon content in the steels.     

On the multiplication of dislocations during martensitic transformations in NiTi shape memory alloys

In situ and post-mortem diffraction contrast transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to study the multiplication of dislocations during a thermal martensitic forward and reverse transformation in a NiTi shape memory alloy single crystal. An analysis of the elongated dislocation loops which formed during the transformation was performed. It is proposed that the stress field of an approaching martensite needle activates an in-grown dislocation segment and generates characteristic narrow and elongated dislocation loops which expand on {1 1 0}_B2 planes parallel to {0 0 1}_B19′ compound twin planes. The findings are compared with TEM results reported in the literature for NiTi and other shape memory alloys. It is suggested that the type of dislocation multiplication mechanism documented in the present study is generic and that it can account for the increase in dislocation densities during thermal and stress-induced martensitic transformations in other shape memory alloys.     

The dynamic transformation of deformed austenite at temperatures above the Ae3

Recent observations regarding the dynamic transformation of deformed austenite at temperatures above the Ae₃ are reviewed. Experimental results obtained on four different steels over the temperature range from 743 to 917 °C and at strains up to ε = 5 are described. It is shown that there is a critical strain for the formation of superequilibrium ferrite and that the volume fraction of transformed ferrite increases with the strain. The structures observed are Widmanstätten in form and appear to have nucleated displacively. The effect of deformation on the Gibbs energy of austenite is estimated by assuming that the austenite continues to work-harden after initiation of the transformation and that its flow stress and dislocation density can be derived from the experimental flow curve by making suitable assumptions about two-phase flow. By further taking into account the inhomogeneity of the dislocation density, Gibbs energy contributions (driving forces) are derived that are sufficient to promote transformation as much as 100 °C above the Ae₃. The C diffusion times required for the dynamic formation of the cementite particles observed are estimated. These range from ～25 to 100 μs and are therefore consistent with the times available during rolling. The Gibbs energy calculations suggest that growth of the Widmanstätten ferrite is followed by C diffusion at the lower carbon contents, while it is accompanied by C diffusion at the higher carbon levels.     

Atomic-scale investigation of ε and θ precipitates in bainite in 100Cr6 bearing steel by atom probe tomography and ab initio calculations

Carbide precipitation during upper and lower bainite formation in high-carbon bearing steel 100Cr6 is characterized using transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography. The results reveal that both ε and θ carbides precipitate in lower bainite isothermally held at 260 °C and only θ precipitates form in upper bainite isothermally held at 500 °C. ε and θ precipitate under paraequilibrium condition at 260 °C in lower bainite and θ precipitates under negligible partitioning local equilibrium condition in upper bainite at 500 °C. In order to theoretically study ε and θ precipitation and the ε → θ transition in bainite, thermodynamic calculations have been carried out using ab initio techniques. We find that ε and θ carbides in ferrite have almost identical thermodynamic stability, and hence have similar formation probability. In austenite, however, cementite formation is clearly preferred: it is favored by 5 kJ mol^?1 at room temperature and still by 4 kJ mol^?1 at 500 °C. Hence, the thermodynamic predictions agree well with the atom probe tomography results.     

Effect of thermo-mechanical process on the microstructure and secondary-deformation behavior of 22MnB5 steels

22MnB5 steel specimens were deformed at 923 K and 693 K to three strain levels to study the effect of applied strain level on the microstructure and secondary-deformation behavior. As the steel was deformed at 923 K, deformation induced ferrite transformation (DIFT) occurred even when a small strain of 0.044 was applied, and the volume fraction of deformation induced ferrite (DIF) increases with increasing applied strain level. When deformed at 693 K, deformation induced bainite transformation (DIBT) was observed when the applied strain was larger than 0.109. The incubation period for DIFT is shorter than that for DIBT, but the DIBT proceeds much faster than DIFT. Sub-size tensile specimens were cut from the hot deformed 22MnB5 steel specimens, and digital image correlation technique was employed to investigate the secondary-deformation behavior of the sub-size tensile specimens at room temperature. It is found that the appearance of DIF or DIB (deformation induced bainite) decreases the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) but increases the elongation and strength–ductility product of the hot deformed 22MnB5 steel specimens compared with the as-quenched 22MnB5 steel specimen with full martensite.     

In situ neutron diffraction investigation of the collaborative deformation–transformation mechanism in TRIP-assisted steels at room and elevated temperatures

The deformation behaviour of two transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-assisted steels with slightly different microstructures due to different thermo-mechanically controlled processing (TMCP) was investigated by the in situ neutron diffraction technique during tensile straining at room temperature and two elevated (50 and 100 °C) temperatures. The essential feature of the TRIP deformation mechanism was found to be significant stress redistribution at the yield point. The applied tensile load is redistributed within the complex TRIP-steel microstructure in such a way that the retained austenite bears a significantly larger load than the ferrite–bainite α-matrix. The macroscopic yielding of the steel then takes place through the simultaneous cooperative activity of the austenite-to-martensite transformation in the austenite phase and plastic deformation in the α-matrix. It is concluded that, although its volume fraction is small, the martensitically transforming retained austenite phase dispersed within the α-matrix governs the plastic deformation of TRIP-assisted steels.     

The influence of rolling temperature on texture evolution and variant selection during α → β → α phase transformation in Ti–6Al–4V

The role of starting texture in variant selection has been studied during α → β → α transformation in Ti–6Al–4V. By hot rolling at different temperatures followed by recrystallization, material with either a strong basal texture or a strong transverse texture was generated. Subsequently, both conditions were heat-treated above the β transus followed by slow cooling. The degree of variant selection was assessed by comparing the strength of the measured and predicted α texture from high temperature β texture, assuming equal occurrence of all possible variants during β → α transformation. It was found that, even though the material rolled originally at 800 °C displayed a stronger α texture after β heat treatment, it was the material rolled originally at 950 °C that showed greater variant selection. The variant selection mechanism is discussed in terms of the generated β texture and common 〈1 1 0〉 poles in neighbouring β grains selecting a similar α variant on both sides of the prior β grain boundary. Predictions of possible 〈1 1 0〉 pole misorientation distributions for the two investigated β textures showed that the combination of texture components generated during rolling Ti–6Al–4V at 950 °C increases the likelihood of having β grain pairs with closely aligned (1 1 0) planes compared to rolling at 800 °C. Therefore, it can be proposed that avoiding the generation of certain combinations of β texture components during thermomechanical processing has the potential for reducing variant selection during subsequent β heat treatment.     

Crystallographic variant selection in α–β brass

The transformation texture of α/β brass with a diffusional Widmanstätten α growth morphology has been investigated. Electron micrographs and electron backscattered diffraction was used to determine that the orientation relationship between the β phase and the α associated with nucleation at β grain boundaries was 44.3° 〈1 1 6〉. Crystallographic variant selection was observed across those prior β/β grain boundaries, but this has little effect on the transformation texture due to the crystal symmetry. The effect of the crystallographic variant selection on texture is further weakened by nucleation of diffusional transformed α in the grain interior.     

Carbon supersaturation of ferrite in a nanocrystalline bainitic steel

The extremely slow transformation kinetics of a nanocrystalline bainitic steel allows the carbon content of the bainitic ferrite away from any carbon-enriched regions such as dislocations and boundaries to be determined by atom probe tomography as the bainite transformation progresses at 200 °C. A high level of carbon, well above that expected from para-equilibrium with austenite, has been detected in solid solution in bainitic ferrite at the early stage of transformation. Results provide strong evidence that bainite transformation is essentially displacive in nature so that the newly formed bainitic ferrite retains much of the carbon content of the parent austenite.