Consequence of contact local kinematics of sliding bodies on the surface temperatures generated

When studying contact with friction between two bodies, it is not possible to obtain data on real contact conditions on the basis of steady-state situations. Indeed, contacts with friction usually lead to dynamic instabilities generated at the contact interface. It is therefore necessary to take into account contact dynamics in order to better understand the phenomena involved during sliding with friction. The explicit dynamic finite element code PlastD in 2D is used to simulate the contact between two bodies. A constant Coulomb friction coefficient is imposed at the interface. The simulations carried out permitted identifying local contact conditions (kinematics, tribological state, stresses, etc.). They revealed that different instability regimes can be generated (stick–slip, slip–separation, stick–slip–separation, etc.). Local contact stresses and the sliding velocity oscillate through time when instabilities are generated and their maximum values can be much higher than those expected for steady-state conditions. The aim of this paper is to analyse the frictional instabilities and their consequences on the heat generated in the contact. First, the influence of the different instability regimes is studied on a simple contact. Then, an industrial mechanism is studied (wheel–rail contact) to investigate the influence of local contact conditions on the temperature of the rail surface.     

Effects of insulated rail joint on the wheel/rail contact stresses under the condition of partial slip

The effect of insulated rail joint (IRJ) on the wheel–rail normal and tangential contact stress distribution is studied using the finite element method. In this investigation, contact elements are used to simulate the interaction between wheel and rail. Numerical simulations are used to explore the effects of contact distances and materials of IRJ on the contact stress and the maximum shear stress distributions. Numerical results show that the presence of IRJ might significantly affect the wheel–rail contact stress distributions. The results also indicate that Carter's theory is no longer effective in predicting the tangential stress distribution of the wheel–rail contact near an IRJ. The tangential stress causes the location of maximum shear stress shifted toward the rail surface as the wheel–rail contact point moves closer to the IRJ. The maximum shear stress value is more sensitive to a braked force than to a tractive force as the wheel–rail contact point is within the IRJ region.     

基于ANSYS的轮轨摩擦滑动接触应力分析

以Hertz接触理论为依据,利用ANSYS建立2D有限元计算模型,模拟原地打滑、完全制动等轮轨滑动摩擦接触行为。分析了轮轨静接触和滑动接触时接触应力分布情况,研究了接触状态、轴重、滑动速度、载荷类型和钢轨轨顶圆半径对接触应力的影响。结合Hertz接触理论计算结果、剥离损伤理论和自激振动理论进行了轮轨损伤分析。     

Temperature in a twin-disc wheel/rail contact simulation

Temperature in a machine element contact is critical in determining wear mechanisms and the conditions at which wear transitions occur. Calculations have shown that the temperature in a wheel/rail contact under severe contact conditions may lead to a transition from severe wear to catastrophic wear. Such high lateral loads and slips can occur in wheel flange contact at railway track curves.The aim of this work was to use a thermal camera to measure the temperatures in a twin-disc simulation of a wheel/rail contact. Disc body and contact temperatures were studied for a number of different contact conditions. Disc emissivity values were determined using an independent calibration test.Measured temperatures were compared with those derived using analytical models which equate frictional heat generated in the contact with heat dissipation due to conduction, convection and radiation. Good correlation was found between the experimental and analytical results. This is despite the fact that its emissivity values were assumed constant throughout the test.     

Analysis of internal cracks in railway wheels under experimentally determined pressure distributions

In recent years much effort has been devoted to the definition of design approaches of railway systems based on the analysis of the system itself and on accurate knowledge of its effective working conditions. In this paper, the attention is focused on railway wheels. This latter component is subjected to different types of damage: sub-surface crack propagation is considered. The prediction of the evolution of this process depends on the knowledge of the stress intensity factors concerning modes I, II and III, which are dependant both on the total load acting on the wheel and on how the load is transmitted through the wheel/rail interface. However, until now the solutions commonly used consider a theoretical (Hertzian) pressure distribution, even if, due to wear or to the dynamic phenomena, the actual contact patch can be strongly different for most of the lifespan of the wheel. An approach is developed with the aim to solve the case of an internally cracked wheel subjected to an arbitrary contact patch and pressure distribution. It is based on Boussinesq's formulae and utilises a three-dimensional finite element model of the part of the wheel close to the crack to calculate the stress intensity factors along a curvilinear crack front. Pressure distributions experimentally determined by means of a technique based on the reflection of high-frequency ultrasonic waves from the wheel–rail interface were applied to internal cracks in wheels: the results were critically compared with the those obtained by considering Hertzian pressure distributions, the aim being the assessment of the influence of the contact conditions in respect of damage cause by internal crack propagation.     

Alumina in unlubricated sliding point, line and plane contacts

The study is based on unlubricated sliding self-mated tests with high-grade alumina in three different contact geometries. In each contact geometry, both mild and severe wear were observed; at the normal force of 30 N that was applied on each test, the transition into severe wear occurred at a velocity specific to the geometry. The wear transition involved surface fracture caused by mechanical and thermal stresses. Part of the wear debris produced under severe wear was compacted under friction and formed smooth tribofilms on the mating surfaces. Larger contact areas allowed slightly higher sliding velocities under a given normal force. The bearing capability of alumina, however, was quite low. Alumina can be recommended only for dry sliding applications in which the load and speed safely remain below the limit for the transition from mild to severe wear.     

冲角对低地板车辆轮轨接触状况的影响

针对城市轨道交通中低地板车辆车轮经常出现的轮缘严重磨耗现象,研究其轮轨接触状况,由于城市轨道交通中小半径曲线较多,存在较大的冲角,为研究冲角对轮轨接触状况的影响,利用轮轨型面测量仪测量运用中的70%低地板车辆车轮与钢轨型面,建立具有不同冲角的车轮与钢轨接触模型,在横向力与牵引力矩作用下应用非线性有限元法进行弹塑性接触计算,分析不同工况下的等效应力及接触斑的变化规律,研究冲角、横向力与牵引力矩对钢轨接触状况的影响。通过计算分析得出以下结论：具有不同冲角的轮轨接触斑形状几乎相同,踏面接触斑近似矩形,轮缘接触斑相对狭长,容易造成轮缘磨耗;冲角增大,轮缘接触斑相对踏面接触斑的超前值增大;随着冲角的增大,轮轨最大等效应力逐渐增大,磨耗功率增大,故在轮轨型面匹配和车辆结构设计中应尽量将轮轨冲角控制在1°以内。     

地铁线路曲线段磨耗状态下轮轨滚动接触有限元分析

基于城市轨道交通曲线段不同磨耗程度的典型钢轨和车轮的实测型面,利用有限元分析软件ANSYS建立曲线段轮轨三维弹塑性接触有限元模型,对三种不同轮轨磨耗型面匹配工况下的地铁车辆的曲线通过性能以及轮轨接触应力进行计算分析,分析不同磨耗状态下车轮和钢轨接触时的接触应力和轮轨应力的分布状态,并研究其对钢轨磨耗的影响。发现钢轨使用初期,由于轮轨廓形不一致,轮轨间易出现应力集中,应力集中部位易出现磨损;随着钢轨侧磨的增加,轮轨接触状态逐渐由一点接触变为两点接触,且接触点的塑性变形部分和弹性部分的过渡区间易出现裂纹;两点接触状态下,外侧轨距角处接触面积及应力集中区域远大于钢轨侧面部分,轨距角易出现较大的接触压力,易加速钢轨磨耗与疲劳伤损的产生。     

ANALYSIS OF THERMAL-ELASTIC STRESS OF WHEEL-RAIL IN ROLLING-SLIDING CONTACT

A coupling thermo-mechanical model of wheel/rail in rolling-sliding contact is put forward using finite element method. The normal contact pressure is idealized as the Hertzian distribution, and the tangential force presented by Carter is used. In order to obtain thermal-elastic stress, the ther-mal-elastic plane stress problem is transformed to an elastic plane stress problem with equivalent fictitious thermal body force and fictitious boundary distributed force. The temperature rise and ther-mal-elastic stress of wheel and rail in rolling-sliding are analyzed. The non-steady state heat transfer between the contact surfaces of wheel and rail, heat-convection and radiation between the wheel/rail and the ambient are taken into consideration. The influences of the wheel rolling speed and wear rate on friction temperature and thermal-elastic stress are investigated. The results show the following: ① For rolling-sliding case, the thermal stress in the thin layer near the contact patch due to the friction temperature rise is severe. The higher rolling speed leads to the lower friction temperature rise and thermal stress in the wheel; ② For sliding case, the friction temperature and thermal stress of the wheel rise quickly in the initial sliding stage, and then get into a steady state gradually. The expansion of the contact patch, due to material wear, can affect the friction temperature rise and the thermal stress during wear process. The higher wear rate generates lower stress. The results can help under-stand the influence of friction temperature and thermal-elastic stress on wheel and rail damage.     

Load bearing capacity of bronze, iron and iron–nickel powder composites containing fullerene-like WS2 nanoparticles

In the past few years, inorganic fullerene-like (e.g. IF) supramolecules of metal dichalcogenide MX₂ (M=Mo,W, etc.; X=S, Se), materials with structures closely related to (nested) carbon fullerenes and nanotubes have been synthesized. Recent experiments showed that IF possess lubricating properties superior to those of commercially available layered solid lubricant (2H–WS₂ polytype) in a wide range of operating conditions. It was shown before that the impregnation of a small amount of such nanoparticles into porous bronze matrix largely improve the tribological properties of bronze–steel contact pairs. In the present work, the effect of the PV (pressure–velocity) parameter on the transition to seizure for powdered bronze–graphite, iron–graphite and iron–nickel–graphite composites impregnated 2H and IF lubricant has been studied. The tribological tests were performed using a ring–block tester at loads of 150–1200 N and sliding speeds from 0.5 to 1.7 m/s. It was found that impregnation of IF into the pores improves the tribological properties of the powdered composites in comparison to 2H–WS₂ solid lubricant. Furthermore, it was established that the impregnation of oil together with the IF nanoparticles allows to provide very high load bearing capacity of the powdered materials.It is suggested that the transition to seizure occurs when the wear debrises accumulate in the pores on the surface. This process practically blocks the surface pores and limits the supply of the solid lubricant particles to the contact surface. The main advantage of the IF nanoparticles is attributed to: (a) slow release and supply of nanoparticles from the open pores to the surface; (b) sliding/rolling of the IF between the rubbing surfaces; and (c) prevention of the accumulation of the agglomerated wear particles in the pores. The model of third body was used in order to explain the effect of the wear particles, oil and solid lubricant particles on the friction and wear behavior of powdered composites.     

Residual stress in some elasto-plastic problems of rolling contact with friction

The problem or rolling contact is of a great interest from the practical and cognitive points of view. It concerns for example a wheel passage on a rail, as well as many other processes where rolling or rolling with sliding is involved. Particularly, residual stresses distributions in the subsurface area due to plastic deformations are of significant importance: these stresses strongly influence fatigue limit and cracking tendencies of the material. A motion of the wheel on the rail (or of a roller on a strip) often has a very complex character: it consists of rolling, sliding in the longitudinal direction due to brakings and accelerations, sliding in the transversal direction, etc. Investigations conducted on this field by many authors have not yet delivered a unique solution. The aim of this paper is to determine the influence of some of these components of the wheel motion (separately and in common action) on residual stresses distributions. The problem has been investigated numerically by the FEM method, using the program SEGLA developed by the authors. The program can be applied to solving linear and nonlinear 2D, axisymmetric and 3D problems with elasto-plastic effects in the nonlinear contact and fracture mechanics. It uses three, four, six, eight and nine-node elements and also the special “spring” elements to model contact. The applied algorithm allows automatic analysis of these fragments of boundary, which enter and leave the contact; in the area where the “new” contact is created the program introduces additional elements.     

Decarburisation and rolling contact fatigue of a rail steel

Decarburisation is present on all new rails and unless ground off, will be on the running surface once installed. This paper presents a detailed investigation into the effect of decarburisation of rolling contact fatigue and wear. Twin disc testing has been used to study the phenomenon under water-lubricated rolling/sliding contact. Rail discs have been cut from grade 220 rail and heat-treated to give samples with varying depths of decarburisation. It was found that as the depth of decarburisation increased the wear rate of the rail disc increased while that of the wheel disc decreased. The effect of decarburisation on rolling contact fatigue was to increase the crack growth rate of samples with increasing depth. Cracks under rolling contact fatigue were propagated by contact stresses via the fluid pressure mechanism and influenced by microstructure. The effect of decarburisation was predicted to have little effect on rail/wheel contact when scaled from the laboratory tests using the depth of maximum shear stress.     

考虑摩擦因数与滑动速度相关时的轮轨滚动接触有限元分析

使用与滑动速度相关的摩擦因数替代库伦摩擦定律中的常系数,结合mixed Lagrangian/Eulerian方法建立轮轨滚动接触有限元模型,分析牵引力主导的蠕滑工况下的干燥状态的轮轨滚动接触特性。通过与摩擦因数取值为常数的轮轨滚动接触分析结果对比发现:与滑动速度相关的摩擦因数对轮轨滚动接触最大接触应力和接触斑面积影响不大,均在1%以内;但是对轮轨接触斑内最大Mises应力、最大纵向切应力、最大横向切应力和最大等效塑性应变影响较大,特别是对最大纵向切应力影响幅度近20%;更需要引起注意的是对轮轨滚动接触摩擦力矢量分布和切向塑性应变分布影响明显,这对轮轨滚动接触疲劳损伤分析非常重要。     

轮轨配合对重载货车轮轨磨耗的影响*

在中国既有线路的参数设置下,建立标准LM车轮与R60轨和R75轨配合时的轮轨接触和磨耗模型,对比研究不同轮轨配合时的磨耗性能。计算表明R75轨轮轨接触点集中分布在轨侧、轨头和轨顶三个区域,接触线不连续。在当轮对横移小于3 mm时,两种钢轨滚动圆半径差和接触角差基本一致,轮对横移大于3 mm时,R75轨的滚动圆半径差和接触角差稍小。R75轨与LM车轮配合时,在车轮踏面和轮缘、钢轨轨顶和轨角两段圆弧的过渡段的接触斑面积和应力变化剧烈。车辆在直线上运行时,R75轨的轮轨磨耗将增大数倍,动态通过800 m半径曲线时,外轨磨耗增大约45%。轮轨配合的理论分析表明R75轨不适应我国重载运输,采用提高强度的R60轨更符合我国重载铁路的实际情况。     

Effect of a scratch on curved rail on initiation and evolution of rail corrugation

The effect of a scratch formed on the running surface of a curved rail, due to the slide of a locomotive wheel, on the formation and evolution of rail corrugation is investigated in detail with numerical methods when a wheelset is steadily and repeatedly curving. In the calculation we consider a combination of Kalker’s rolling contact theory with non-Hertzian to be modified, a linear frictional work model and a vertical dynamics model of railway vehicle coupled with a curved track. Also the influence of different speeds of wheelset curving through the scratch on the development of the corrugation is taken into account. The numerical results indicate that a scratch causes strong contact vibration between the wheel and rail, and initiation and development of rail corrugation under the condition of steady creepage occurring between the wheel and curved rail. The wave-length of the corrugation depends on the speed of wheelset curving and the natural frequencies of the track.     

Translohr有轨电车导向轨轮接触模型研究*

基于调研上海张江Translohr有轨电车线路导向轨磨耗的基础上,推断出导向轮与导向轨的两种稳定的接触状态：两导向轮的踏面与倒V形导向轨的两个顶面接触,以及一侧导向轮轮缘与导向轨一侧轨腰接触状态。在忽略接触点位置变化的前提下,提出导向轮与导向轨之间的接触关系可简化为四点单边弹簧的等效力学模型。在Matlab/Simulink环境中建立Translohr有轨电车的动力学模型,其中动力走行部模型中引入Dummy体以简化空间四连杆的导向机构。仿真计算Translohr有轨电车在不同半径曲线上的轮轨接触状态,并实际测量了Translohr有轨电车在上海张江线路的轮轨导向力。仿真结果说明在40 m半径曲线上处于导向轮踏面与导向轨顶面接触接触状态,在25 m半径的曲线上出现一侧导向轮踏面和轮缘接触状态。仿真得到的轮轨导向力数值与实际测量结果具有较好的一致性。建立的导向轮轨模型可用来研究Translohr有轨电车导向轨侧磨产生的条件和影响因素。     

轮轨接触界面摩擦管理研究进展

列车向着高速与重载方向迅速发展,显著加剧了轮轨接触界面间的损伤。通过在轮轨接触界面进行摩擦管理能够有效地降低轮轨之间的磨损、显著提高列车的运行安全性以及降低运营成本。对轮轨接触界面摩擦管理研究现状进行综述,并介绍轮轨界面摩擦控制对轮轨作用力、黏着、磨耗、滚动接触疲劳以及振动与噪声影响的研究进展;展望了轮轨接触界面摩擦管理未来研究方向,即应针对不同应用环境和接触部位,研发合理的摩擦控制材料,以克服摩擦管理过程中对轮轨损伤及使用局限性等问题;应探究车轮踏面/轨顶面和轮缘/轨距面摩擦控制方式,严格控制摩擦材料喷涂量使两接触面不相互干扰,优化改进轮轨接触界面摩擦管理的最佳应用参数;应研发环境友好型的轮缘/轨距面润滑剂与车轮踏面/轨顶面摩擦控制剂,稳定调控轮轨接触界面的黏着特性。     

Wear rate testing in relation to airborne particles generated in a wheel–rail contact

This study examines the relationship between generated airborne particles and wear rate in the wheel–rail contact. The wheel–rail contact is experimentally simulated by using pin‐on‐disc testing to determine the difference in wear rate between selected contact conditions. Wear is discussed both in tribological terms and by using the wear categories prevalent in the railway industry, namely, mild, severe and catastrophic wear. The discussion is based on wear depth, the coefficient of friction, topographical measurements and measurements of airborne particles generated in the contact. The tests were performed under selected loading conditions representative of different contact conditions in a real wheel–rail contact. The results indicate that wear rates vary with the contact conditions arising from different types of triggered wear transitions. This is emphasised by the number and size of the airborne particles generated. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于轮轨法向间隙的车轮踏面优化方法

为了寻求基于目标的铁路车辆车轮踏面数值优化技术,开发一种考虑轮轨法向间隙参数的车轮踏面优化方法。利用该方法优化我国高速列车车轮LMa型面。并发现优化后的LMa车轮和CHN60钢轨滚动接触接触时,轮轨界面之间具有较好的“共形”特性,这样能有效降低轮轨接触应力以达到降低滚动接触疲劳目的。并用车辆轨道耦合动力学理论分析优化的车轮型面对车辆动态特性的影响。数值结果表明,在不降低车辆动力学性能的情况下,此方法可以有效改善轮轨接触点对分布,降低轮轨接触应力。     

速率变化对轮轨滚动接触蠕滑特性的影响

从研究影响轮轨滚动接触几何关系的机制出发,利用数值计算方法分析横移量和摇头角变化速率对轮轨接触质点间蠕滑力/率、接触斑黏滑区的分布等的影响。分析结果表明:横移量、摇头角的变化速率对轮轨滚动接触蠕滑特性具有重要的影响具有重要的影响;随着横移量变化速率的增加,轮轨接触斑间的横向蠕滑力/率、蠕滑力密度等增大,同时滑动区逐渐增大,黏着区面积逐渐减小,因此当列车在加速过程中要适当考虑增黏措施;随着摇头角的变化速率的增大,轮轨接触斑间的纵向蠕滑力/率、蠕滑力密度等增大,而横向蠕滑力/率、蠕滑力密度等减小,接触斑上滑移区面积逐渐增大,直至接触斑切向力达到饱和处于全滑动状态。