Design of special truss moment frames considering progressive collapse

In this study the progressive collapse resisting capacity of the Special Truss Moment Frames (STMF) was investigated. To this end STMF with various span lengths, numbers of story, and lengths of special segment were designed. Their performances against progressive collapse were evaluated based on arbitrary column removal scenario. It was observed that all the model structures designed per the AISC Seismic Provision collapsed as a result of plastic hinge formation at special segment when a column was suddenly removed. A design procedure was developed based on the energy balance concept to prevent progressive collapse. The model structures redesigned using the developed design procedure turned out to remain stable after a column was suddenly removed and satisfy the acceptance criteria of the GSA guidelines.     

Simplified nonlinear progressive collapse analysis of welded steel moment frames

In this study, two nonlinear analysis methods are proposed that can be used for a simplified but accurate evaluation of progressive collapse potential in welded steel moment frames. To this end, the load-resisting mechanism of the column-removed double-span beams in welded steel moment frames was first investigated based on material and geometric nonlinear parametric finite element analysis. A simplified tri-linear model for the vertical resistance versus chord rotation relationship of the double-span beams was developed. The application of the developed model to energy-based nonlinear static progressive collapse analysis was then proposed. The relationship between the gravity loading and the maximum dynamic chord rotation or the concept of collapse spectrum was also established for a quick assessment of the maximum deformation demands.     

Horizontal bracing to enhance progressive collapse resistance of steel moment frames

In this paper, the effect of horizontal bracing on enhancing the resistance of steel moment frames against progressive collapse is investigated. Previously designed 6 bay by 3 bay 18‐story steel frame prototype building with 6 m bay span (namely, unbraced frame), which was susceptible to progressive collapse, is retrofitted by four types of horizontal bracing systems on the perimeter of the topmost story and analyzed using 3D nonlinear dynamic method. Six different cross‐sections for each bracing system type are considered, and the capacity curves for each model are obtained. Three column removal circumstances, namely, Edge Short Column, First Edge Long Column, and Edge Long Column are considered in this paper. The results imply that horizontal bracing would increase the resistance of moment frames against progressive collapse. However, one of the bracing types in which axial compressive force is created in braces is not appropriate for retrofitting.     

Loss-of-stability induced progressive collapse modes in 3D steel moment frames

This paper deals with the progressive collapse analysis of a tall steel frame following the removal of a corner column according to the alternate load path approach. Several analysis techniques are considered (eigenvalue, material nonlinearities, material and geometric nonlinearities), as well as 2D and 3D modelling of the structural system. It is determined that the collapse mechanism is a loss-of-stability-induced one that can be identified by combining a 3D structural model with an analysis involving both material and geometric nonlinearities. The progressive collapse analysis reveals that after the initial removal of a corner column, its two adjacent columns fail from elastic flexural-torsional buckling at a load lower than the design load. The failure of these two columns is immediately followed by the failure of the next two adjacent columns from elastic flexural–torsional buckling. After the failure of these five columns, the entire structure collapses without the occurrence of any significant plastification. The main contribution is the identification of buckling-induced collapse mechanisms in steel frames involving sequential buckling of multiple columns. This is a type of failure mechanism that has not received appropriate attention because it practically never occurs in properly designed structures without the accidental loss of a column.     

Effect of inverted-V bracing on retrofitting against progressive collapse of steel moment resisting frames

The effect of inverted-V bracing on enhancing progressive collapse resistance of steel Moment Resisting Frames (MRF) were investigated in this study. A series of nonlinear static and dynamic analyses were performed to determine the resistance of four generic MRFs retrofitted by ten inverted-V bracing element. These structures were subjected to an exterior column loss and had a different number of stories and span lengths in order to study the effect of these variations on the structural response. Both force-controlled and deformation-controlled actions were implemented to determine if the column loss would lead to a failure progression. Results showed that structural configuration affects the structural resistance against failure progression and hence the appropriate brace element to retrofit it. Also, it was shown that for the studied 4-story frames, by increasing the span length by 20%, the structural resistance decreases by 42% on average. Finally, it was observed that by decreasing the span length, the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) suggested by the UFC, will lead to underestimating the required cross-sectional area of the brace for strengthening the unbraced structures.     

Assessment of progressive collapse-resisting capacity of steel moment frames

In this study the progressive collapse-resisting capacity of steel moment resisting frames was investigated using alternate path methods recommended in the GSA and DoD guidelines. The linear static and nonlinear dynamic analysis procedures were carried out for comparison. It was observed that, compared with the linear analysis results, the nonlinear dynamic analysis provided larger structural responses and the results varied more significantly depending on the variables such as applied load, location of column removal, or number of building story. However the linear procedure provided more conservative decision for progressive collapse potential of model structures. As the nonlinear dynamic analysis for progressive collapse analysis does not require modeling of complicated hysteretic behavior, it may be used as more precise and practical tool for evaluation of progressive collapse potential of building structures.     

考虑悬链线效应的钢筋混凝土框架结构抗连续倒塌能力分析

为了研究悬链线效应对钢筋混凝土（RC）框架结构抗连续倒塌能力的影响,基于OpenSees建立可以考虑悬链线效应的RC框架宏模型,通过两个RC框架子结构在移除中柱后的竖向承载力试验结果对比,验证了所采用宏模型的合理性,并研究了悬链线效应对RC框架子结构抗连续倒塌能力的影响。分别采用备用荷载路径法中的非线性静力方法和非线性动力方法对1栋10层RC框架结构进行抗连续倒塌能力分析,研究悬链线效应对RC框架整体结构抗连续倒塌能力的影响。结果表明：不考虑悬链线效应的影响将低估RC框架结构的抗连续倒塌能力;在移除底层中柱情况下,不考虑悬链线效应分析得到的荷载放大系数最大值小于2.0,而考虑悬链线效应分析得到的荷载放大系数最大值则超过2.0。     

钢支撑对多层钢框架结构抗连续倒塌鲁棒性影响研究

为研究钢支撑对钢框架结构抗连续倒塌鲁棒性的影响,制作了两个1/2缩尺的二层钢框架子结构,其中一个框架布置钢支撑,另一个为纯框架。试验采用位移控制的Pushdown加载方式,对多层钢框架的抗力机制、内力变化以及破坏模式进行研究。试验结果表明：布置钢支撑后,钢框架子结构的初始刚度和极限荷载分别提升129.7%和45.1%,明显提高了钢结构抗连续倒塌的鲁棒性;由于受压支撑在加载初期就开始发生局部屈曲,较早失去承载能力,钢支撑的抗力贡献主要由受拉支撑提供。通过有限元分析软件ANSYS/LS-DYNA进一步研究了钢支撑布置位置及其截面尺寸对钢框架抗连续倒塌性能的影响,分析结果表明：增大钢支撑的截面尺寸可以明显提高钢框架的承载力,但会降低其变形能力;将钢支撑布置于失效柱上层或顶层时对钢框架的加固效果较好;由于去柱楼层的不确定,建议将钢支撑布置于顶层对框架抗倒塌更为有利。     

Performance of bolted angle connections in progressive collapse of steel frames

This paper is mainly focused on the behaviour of bolted top‐seat angle connections with double web angles, categorized as partially restrained connections, in progressive collapse of semi‐rigid steel frames due to sudden column loss. The main characteristics of this type of loading are declared and the effect of the imposed boundary conditions on the motivated elements is depicted. To study the performance of frame connections under these conditions, refined nonlinear finite element modelling technique is used. The models are created based on the previous experimental studies and their accuracy is examined through a comparison to the results of these tests. New models are created under conditions of the progressive collapse and the behaviour of the connections is studied. The study showed that due to the applied boundary conditions, the connections behave stiffer and show a higher moment capacity. Based on the results of the numerical models, equations are presented to estimate the moment‐rotation response of the studied connections under progressive collapse conditions based on the beam and connection mechanical and geometrical properties and the connection rotation. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of wind load integration in disproportionate collapse analysis of steel moment frames for column loss

The design of steel structures, in most cases, depends majorly on the level of wind loads which are prescribed by codes and regulations and are used in the structural analysis due to the fact that steel structures being light and ductile systems are strongly affected from a slight difference in the values of wind loading. During the last decades, disproportionate collapse analysis has become of major interest mainly due to the increasing number of failures occurring in that pattern. Commonly accepted guidelines and methods of analysis have been produced, the most dominating of which being the Department of Defense Facilities criteria or DoD. In the DoD, as well as in other criteria, the event of a column loss is suggested as the modeling scenario which has to be sustained by a structural system in order to be robust. However, all the guidelines so far have disconnected the column loss analysis from wind loads and have only performed it for gravity loading. This paper presents the dynamic time history disproportionate collapse analysis of steel frames, including various levels of wind loading. Interesting aspects are discussed through the parametric analysis of five different numerical examples of moment resisting frames.     

Effect of tension bracing on the collapse mechanism of steel moment frames

The nonlinear response of Tension Braced Moment Resisting Frames (TBMRF) under lateral loading with regards to their sequential failure mechanisms and ductility is studied. Both distributed and lumped plasticity finite element approaches are considered and parametric studies are carried out to evaluate the sequence of element failures in various single and multi-storey TBMRFs. Three possible failure mechanisms representing different specific characteristics of TBMRF systems are presented and their differences are outlined. Also, several multi-storey dual-system TBMRFs are analyzed and the results are utilized to set up an analytical model which can appropriately differentiate and evaluate the load carrying contribution of brace and frame elements. Finally, an empirical formula and design curves to calculate frame-brace contribution ratios in different performance levels are proposed.     

高层钢框架考虑损伤累积效应的地震倒塌分析方法

针对结构倒塌破坏的不确定性,提出一种用于高层钢框架结构在强震作用下结构倒塌全过程模拟的数值方法,该方法采用基于中心差分法的显式积分格式,通过定义结构的层损伤,将修正的K&K模型应用到结构中,以考虑结构在地震作用下强度和刚度的退化规律。通过编制有限元程序将该方法用于分析20层benchmark模型结构倒塌全过程和倒塌机理。分析表明,该考虑材料损伤累积效应的方法能更精确地确定高层钢框架结构的失效极限荷载,且在未知结构的失效破坏模式前提下,可较好地模拟在地震作用下结构的失效路径以及倒塌全过程和揭示结构的倒塌机理。     

Behavior and design of reinforced concrete frames retrofitted with steel bracing against progressive collapse

Steel bracing is able to improve progressive collapse resistance of reinforced concrete (RC) frames, but the bracing design is typically based on seismic retrofitting or lateral stability. There is no approach for design of steel bracing against progressive collapse. To this end, a retrofitting approach with steel braces is proposed based on analysis of macro finite element (FE) models with fiber beam elements. The FE models were initially validated through the experimental results of a braced frame and then used to investigate the effects of pertinent parameters on the progressive collapse resistance of planar frames. The results suggest the braces should be placed at the top story. Thereafter, macro FE models are built to investigate the dynamic responses of the three‐dimensional prototype RC frames under different column removal scenarios (CRS) and show the necessity of retrofitting. Accordingly, the design approach of steel bracing is proposed with incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) and assuming independent contribution of braces and frames to resistance. Finally, the fragility analysis of the frames under a corner‐penultimate‐exterior CRS is conducted through IDA and Monte Carlo simulation, and the results confirm the validity of the proposed design approach for retrofitting RC frames.     

Effects of in‐cycle strength degradation on collapse capacity of steel moment frames

In this study, the effects of in‐cycle strength degradation of steel moment connections are investigated on global behavior of multiple degree‐of‐freedom structures. Two types of degrading connection models are defined and compared with a bilinear non‐degrading model. Due to dispersion of the experimental test results on connections performance, two models are considered for each type. A probability assessment is carried out by implementation of incremental dynamic analysis to find the capacity of the structures for various performance levels. A sensitivity study is conducted on hysteresis parameters of connection models to investigate the effect of these parameters on global behavior of the structures. Due to increased dispersion of displacement demands observed in degrading cases, a reliability analysis is carried out to consider the effect of uncertainty on confidence level of the structures. Results show that in‐cycle strength degradation can lead to abrupt dynamic instability and as a consequence decrease in reliability of the system against collapse. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of different loading simulation approaches for progressive collapse analysis of regular building frames

Applications of different loading simulation approaches to progressive collapse analysis of building frames subjected to sudden column loss are evaluated in this paper. Analytical investigation on the nonlinear static behaviour of a middle-supported clamped beam reveals that both the load-release and direct loading techniques will result in consistent response if the supporting force may be completely released. However, the dynamic load-displacement responses of eight building models indicate that the direct loading approach may predict less load capacity and larger displacement demand than the load-release one. The relative error in load-displacement response is more significant with the pseudo-static estimation. The difference in displacement response between the load-release and the direct loading or pseudo-static approaches may increase with the extent of plastification and number of storeys of the building frames. An empirical formula is proposed and validated for estimating the displacement error. The empirical formula may help for enhancing practical applications of the direct loading and pseudo-static approaches to progressive collapse analyses of low-to-medium rise, regular building frames.     

Assessment of eccentrically braced frames strength against progressive collapse

One of the most important and effective factors of structural strength against the risk of progressive collapse is the type of lateral load bearing system of a building. In this research, strength of dual steel moment frames equipped with a variety of eccentric bracings against progressive collapse was evaluated by using nonlinear static alternate path method. 6-floored building samples were designed with steel frame using a dual steel moment system together with 3 different types of bracing, including inverted eccentrically V-shaped bracing (chevron bracing), eccentrically V-shaped bracing and eccentrically X-shaped bracing, each with two different kinds of arrangement of bracings in the structural plan, in form of alternate and neighbor. The effects of sudden removal of columns on different floors of these buildings were examined. These studies showed that dual steel moment frames equipped with eccentric bracings generally exhibited desirable strength against progressive collapse. A change in the type of bracing resulted in significant changes in the system capacity in the progressive collapse. Among the different types of braces assessed, chevron type eccentrically brace showed higher strength against progressive collapse. Also, that alternate arrangement of bracings in structure plan demonstrated better performance than neighboring arrangement.     

Influence of seismicity level and height of the building on progressive collapse resistance of steel frames

Influences of building height and seismicity level on progressive collapse resistance of buildings are investigated in this paper. For the height, 4‐story, 8‐story and 12‐story steel special moment resisting frames are focused. The obtained results indicate that taller buildings are safer against progressive collapse. To study the influence of seismicity level, different four‐story structures having special moment resisting frame systems are designed for different levels of seismicity, namely, very high, high, moderate and low. The structures are evaluated, using nonlinear dynamic method and two main scenarios of the codes, including sudden removal of a corner and a middle column in the first floor. Some graphs are presented for progressive collapse resistance of the structures, depending on their seismic base shears. It is shown that the structures designed for greater seismic base shears are more resistant against progressive collapse. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Progressive collapse resisting capacity of moment frames with viscous dampers

In this paper, the effect of viscous dampers on reducing progressive collapse potential of steel moment frames was evaluated by nonlinear dynamic analysis. Parametric studies were conducted first to evaluate the effects of dampers installed in a steel beam‐column subassembly with varying natural period and yield strength on the reduction of progressive collapse potential. Then 15‐story moment‐resisting frames with three different span lengths were designed with and without viscous dampers, and the effect of viscous dampers was investigated by nonlinear dynamic analysis. According to the parametric study, the vertical displacement generally decreased as the damping ratio of the system increased, and the dampers were effective in both the elastic and the elasto‐plastic systems. It was also observed that the effect of the damper increased as the natural period of the structure increased and the strength ratio decreased. The analysis results of 15‐story analysis model structures showed that the viscous dampers, originally designed to reduce earthquake‐induced vibration, were effective in reducing vertical displacement of the structures caused by sudden removal of a first‐story column, and the effect was more predominant in the structure with longer span length. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reliability-based assessment of deteriorating steel moment resisting frames

One of the objectives in performance-based earthquake engineering is to quantify the seismic reliability of a structure due to future random earthquakes at a designated site. For that purpose, two performance evaluation processes that do incorporate the effect of aleatory and epistemic uncertainties are illustrated and used in order to calculate the reliability of different height Special Moment Resisting frames through two probabilistic-based measures. These two measures are the confidence levels for satisfying the desired performance levels at given hazard levels and mean annual frequency of exceeding a specified structural capacity.Analytical models are employed including panel zone and a comprehensive model for structural components that not only include strength and stiffness degradation in back bone curve, but also incorporate gradual deterioration of strength and stiffness under cyclic loading. Incremental dynamic analysis is then utilized to assess the structural dynamic behavior of the frames and to generate required data for performance based evaluations. This research is intended to contribute to the progress in improvement of the performance knowledge on seismic design and evaluation of special steel moment resisting frame structures.