A history of APA's concern with the master's degree: or "Discharged with thanks."

Documents the work of the American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Professional Training and reviews the history of APA activities regarding the MA or subdoctoral degree. Archival materials were based on conferences, workings and reports of various APA boards and committees, and publications. The focus is on the 1950s and 1960s though several pre-1950 activities are identified, including the 1947 and 1948 Policy and Planning Board reference to MA training, and the 1949 Boulder Conference on Graduate Education in Clinical Psychology. Other events include the 1950–1951 survey of 144 graduate departments in the US by W. McTeer; the Education and Training Board of 1951; and the 1965 Chicago Conference, which dealt with subdoctoral education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

All but the dissertation.

Refers to W. G. Crary's (1970) discussion of subdoctoral psychologists, noting that school psychologists at the MA level have the same privileges as their counterparts with PhDs in California. However, if they continue to be regarded as less than equal, they are likely to develop their own state and national organizations and work toward legislation allowing them to practice professionally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subdoctoral Psychologists?

This column comments on the committee on subdoctoral education of the E & T board's recommendation in the September, 1955 issue of the "American Psychologist" that the term "psychologist" be reserved for people at the doctoral level and that the term "psychological technician" be used to designate persons at the subdoctoral level. In my opinion this sort of downgrading is completely unwarranted and represents an attempt on the part of the PhDs to freeze out competition despite their rationalization that it is in the public interest. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Committee on Subdoctoral Education. The training of technical workers in psychology at the subdoctoral level.

After having considered many previous statements and reports concerning the training of psychological workers at the subdoctoral level "… the committee's best collective judgment on certain issues" is made explicit in several statements. Among these are: "A. Professional training in psychology at the subdoctoral level is desirable… . B. Appropriate distinctions as to role and title should be made between the subdoctorally trained psychological worker and the doctorally trained psychologist." Eight recommendations are made concerning subdoctoral training. Implications and expected orientations of the recommendations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the manpower problem and graduate training in clinical psychology.

Discusses the problems of manpower shortage and the nature of clinical graduate education and proposes strategies for dealing with them. It is suggested that there be (1) movement away from the scientist-professional or V. C. Raimy's Boulder model still often considered the most appropriate for clinical psychology to more emphasis on a professional psychologist model, and (2) development of specialist-oriented subdoctoral programs in clinical psychology. The 1st priority in the development of professionally oriented masters programs would be extensive analyses of the needs of various agencies utilizing psychologists, and the resources of present masters programs, i.e., requiring the high standards of performance for the MA and subjecting MA programs to accreditation by the American Psychological Association. Such an MA program is exemplified. The recommended approach "offers no nirvana" for the PhD clinical psychologist. 5 major benefits from the approach are presented. The greatest problem involved in the approach would be "convincing the agencies concerned of the competency of the MA-level people. It is concluded that the problems and pressures have resulted in tolerance of the ideas that the MA programs should be professionally oriented." (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A rose by any other name….

Argues that 2 attitudinal shifts are necessary to effectively use individuals trained at the subdoctoral level in psychology. These individuals must not be relegated to 2nd-class status, and psychological specialists, particularly those in service roles, should be trained to function relatively independently within their specialty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The necessity of postdoctoral education.

Agrees with S. R. Graham and R. E. Fox's (see record 1992-06970-001) idea for a network of centers of excellence to provide postdoctoral training. It is asserted that the trend of clients using subdoctoral providers in mental health facilities will continue unless psychologists can demonstrate their ability to provide sophisticated, outcome-oriented, and cost-efficient services. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subdoctoral education in psychology: A study of issues and attitudes.

Discusses several psychological conferences and committee's attitudes toward the desirability of "programs to train for psychological service at less than the doctoral level." 7 central areas of contention concerning subdoctoral training are (1) type of training, (2) level of training, (3) responsibility for training, (4) locus of training, (5) degree and/or title, (6) roles and duties, and (7) implications for psychology. The 7 issues served as the basis of the specific questions in a large scale survey. The sample (N = 4308) included American Psychological Association members of the Clinical, School, and Counseling Divisions of Psychology and chairmen of graduate departments of psychology. Results indicate that "the large majority of psychologists recognize the need for and approve the training of people at less than the doctoral level to do psychological work." A consensus as to how this is to be implemented was not reached. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subdoctoral Psychologists.

Comments on P. J. Woods' article on APA's concern with the Master's degree in psychology (American Psychologist, 1971, 26, 696-707). The present author suggests that before many more hours are expended in deciding whether subdoctoral psychologists should be called psychologists, the assumption that clinical practitioners holding a doctorate in psychology are better equipped than those trained at the master's level should be demonstrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

PhD and MA clinical psychologists and MSWs in public mental health settings: A nationwide comparison.

Presents results of a nationwide survey of 402 public mental health facility directors that solicited information and opinions comparing the employment opportunities, salaries, duties, and job skills of doctoral and subdoctoral clinical psychologists and MSWs. Results indicate that although all groups are in demand in the marketplace, receive competitive salaries, and are evaluated as competent service providers, subdoctoral clinicians consistently fall behind MSWs on all dimensions, and both, in turn, fall behind doctoral-level clinical psychologists. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Report of the… .

Asummary of a report containing "information about subdoctoral training programs,… questions the committee deemed relevant and important,… and appropriate recommendations." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of psychology in the delivery of health services.

Considers whether psychology is both a health science and a health profession. The question is answered affirmatively. The pattern of psychological research in the health domain is analyzed. Current and evolving demands for psychological service in both preventive and treatment contexts are surveyed. Implications for training at both doctoral and subdoctoral levels are examined. (52 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Doctoral and master's-level clinical psychologists and MSWs in public mental health settings: A nationwide follow-up.

278 directors of public mental health facilities, who participated in a 1979 nationwide survey comparing the employment opportunities, salaries, duties, and skills of doctoral and subdoctoral clinical psychologists (SDCPs) and individuals with masters degrees in social work (MSWs), were asked to complete a similar survey in 1983. Results indicate that, in the interim, salaries for all groups increased significantly and members of each group were staying on the job longer. Ratings of competency, contributions to the agency, and adequacy of academic background did not change significantly, and SDCPs continued to be rated lower than MSWs and doctoral-level clinicians on all dimensions. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The master's degree in psychology.

A discussion of the nature and purpose of the master's degree in psychology as well as of a number of problems related to subdoctoral education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The specialist–doctorial controversy: Some realities of training, practice, and advocacy.

Examined the feasibility of the American Psychological Association's (APA) doctoral-level-only policy for the specialty of school psychology. The extent of subdoctoral training is reviewed, and the necessity of resolving the specialist/doctoral controversy is stressed. The job market for specialist-level psychologists and the professional advocacy of organizations other than APA are also discussed as important elements of the controversy. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of mental health services provided by HMOs.

Surveyed 145 US health maintenance organizations (HMOs) to determine outpatient mental health services offered, psychologists and other providers used, and practices followed in offering such services. Results show that basic assessment and intervention modalities were available to almost all HMO members. Health education programs (weight control, smoking control, and stress adaptation) were not as broadly available as were the more traditional mental health efforts. Almost all HMOs utilized psychologists as providers, either as employees or consultants; subdoctoral qualifications for employment were accepted by one-fifth of the plans. In most plans, physicians referred patients for psychological services. HMOs based on individual practice association models offered fewer services than either group or staff models. The level of mental health service required for federal qualification is exceeded by plans enrolling 82% of all members. Data did not support the argument that requiring mental health services results in forcing both services and costs upward. It is concluded that the current rate of HMO growth will not provide large numbers of additional jobs for psychologists. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The Straw That Broke the Camel's Back" (Answer to Paul Gedansky's Criticism).

The author regrets that her statement in "Psychology--a Profession or What," served to heighten Gedansky's anguish to the point where his anger was unleashed against the PhD in psychology. She is fully in sympathy with him, but finds it hard to agree that the MA is the optimum educational requirement for clinical psychology, because "the berated MA technicians have been quietly giving the bulk of clinical services in the hospitals and clinics of the United States for a good many years." Also it does not follow that hospitals and clinics must continue to use the MA in psychology rather than the PhD just because they have done so in the past. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control and learned helplessness among retarded and nonretarded children: A developmental analysis.

Learned helplessness is produced by successive failures and by feedback attributing failure to uncontrollable causes. Retarded children appear to encounter both causal factors frequently and may thus be susceptible to helplessness. To test this possibility, children of low (70), average (100), and high (130) IQ at 3 MA levels (5?, 7?, and 9? yrs) were administered a response-initiation measure, a puzzle-repetition measure of perseverance after failure, and a questionnaire designed to gauge attributions for failure. Teachers also rated Ss on a helplessness scale. Helplessness, as measured by the 2 questionnaires, declined with MA. On the 3 helplessness measures derived from Ss themselves, there was an IQ by MA interaction: The low-IQ group showed more helplessness relative to nonretarded children at the upper MA level than to nonretarded children at the 2 lower levels. Results, although qualified in some respects, are consistent with the view that helplessness can be learned over time by children who repeatedly fail to effect the outcomes that they desire and who learn to attribute failure to factors beyond their control. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comments on the Report of the Committee on Subdoctoral Education for Psychological Technicians.

These brief comments, elicited by the next-to-last sentence of the challenging report of the Committee (Amer. Psychologist, 1955, 10, 541-545), bear on matters of concern to all members of the APA. In the kind of practical services I have been rendering since the century's first decade, often referred to as the psychoclinical examination of educationally and mentally retarded and maladjusted school children, the conclusion was early reached that two levels of functioning and training are required in the field of psychological examination and diagnosis. I still hold to the practical necessity of such a dichotomy, at least in public school systems. I am with the Committee in its effort to elevate the certification standards for examiners and to safeguard the professional status of practicing pyschologists, who should have a status comparable to that of a physician; but the psychologist needs technical assistants, just as the physician does. The Committee's suggestion that subdoctoral examiners be denominated "psychological technicians" may be satisfactory for certain kinds of positions, but it is less satisfactory for public school examiners. For these, I have used the term "psychoeducational examiner" since adopting the term "psychoeducational clinic" in 1912. I question the propriety of abandoning the master's degree in psychology for one year of graduate work. It is just as desirable to encourage students to spend a graduate year in psychology for general or cultural purposes, as in English, history, social science, or chemistry. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of school psychology program directors and program production.

Conducted a survey to determine how directors of school psychology programs receive their preparation and what kinds of programs they direct. 157 returned questionnaires revealed that directors came from a wide variety of preparatory departments; were predominantly men; were mostly in departments of education, where they prepared specialists for the schools; and had served as director for less than 4 yrs. A majority had had field practice. Their duties were comparable to those of directors of clinical programs. School psychologist programs currently produce nearly 10 times as many subdoctoral as doctoral graduates. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)