Design of non-flammable mixed refrigerant Joule-Thomson refrigerator for precooling stage of high temperature superconducting power cable

A cryogenic Joule-Thomson (JT) refrigerator has many advantages for large industrial applications, including easy cooling power adjustability and high reliability because there are no moving parts at low temperature. In this paper, a single stage and a cascade type of non-flammable (NF) mixed refrigerant (MR) JT refrigerators have been proposed for the precooling process of a neon/nitrogen mixed refrigerant JT refrigerator. The neon/nitrogen MR JT refrigerator is used to maintain a subcooled state of liquid nitrogen coolant for an HTS (high temperature superconductor) cable.Both selected MRs for the 1st stage (low temperature cycle) of the cascade MR JT refrigerator and the single MR JT refrigerator are composed of Nitrogen (N₂), Argon (Ar), Tetrafluoromethane (CF₄, R14) and Octafluoropropane (C₃F₈, R218). R410A is selected as the refrigerant for the 2nd stage (high temperature cycle) of the cascade MR JT refrigerator, of which the cooling temperature is approximately 240 K. A commercial software with Peng-Robinson equation of state (EOS) is utilized to design the non-flammable MR JT refrigerator. The optimal design is discussed with consideration for various parameters such as the temperature staging, the operating pressure of the compressor and the mass flow rate of the working fluid. The maximum coefficient of performance (COP) and Carnot efficiency of the cascade MR JT refrigerator are obtained as 0.216 and 40%, respectively at 105 K. Exergy analysis is also carried out in this paper to reveal the irreversibility of the refrigeration cycle.     

Design of high efficiency mixed refrigerant Joule–Thomson refrigerator for cooling HTS cable

The substitution of high temperature superconducting (HTS) cables for existing subterranean electric transmission lines is arising as a solution to continuously increasing electricity demand in urban areas. A cryogenic refrigeration system having the characteristics of high reliability, high efficiency, large cooling capacity, and low capital cost is essential to enable such a substitution. These requirements can be satisfied with a mixed refrigerant Joule–Thomson (MR JT) refrigerator. Unfortunately, usual MR JT refrigerators exhibit good performance at refrigeration temperatures above 80 K. A precooled neon–nitrogen MR JT refrigerator is proposed in this paper that can cool HTS cables at 70 K. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the proposed MR JT refrigerator is predicted to be 0.058 at 70 K (19.2% for exergy efficiency) with the optimized design variables. The COP can be improved further to 0.064 by enhancing the efficiency of the precooling cycle. The maximum achievable COP demonstrates the feasibility of MR JT refrigerator for cooling HTS cable.     

An efficient multi-stage Brayton–JT cycle for liquefaction of natural gas

Combined multi-stage Brayton–JT refrigeration cycles are investigated as a governmental effort in Korea to develop an original liquefaction process of natural gas in accordance with recent demand of higher efficiency and larger capacity. Based upon thermodynamic optimization theory, a combined refrigeration system is proposed with nitrogen (N2) Brayton cycle, ethylene (C2) JT cycle, and propane (C3) JT cycles, which are used for cooling the feed gas in a series of heat exchangers. Since no mixed refrigerants are used, this system is simple in operation and robust in reliability. A complete cycle design is presented to confirm its feasibility and estimate the liquefaction performance. It is expected that the proposed N2–C2–C3 cycle could have a reasonably high efficiency and the potential of great liquefaction capacity. Next steps are underway for patent application and practical process development.     

Cryogenic system with the sub-cooled liquid nitrogen for cooling HTS power cable

A 10 m long, three-phase AC high-temperature superconducting (HTS) power cable had been fabricated and tested in China August 2003. The sub-cooled liquid nitrogen (LN₂) was used to cool the HTS cable. The sub-cooled LN₂ circulation was built by means of a centrifugal pump through a heat exchanger in the sub-cooler, the three-phase HTS cable cryostats and a LN₂ gas-liquid separator. The LN₂ was cooled down to 65 K by means of decompressing, and the maximum cooling capacity was about 3.3 kW and the amount of consumed LN₂ was about 72 L/h at 1500 A. Cryogenic system design, test and some experimental results would be presented in this paper.     

包含五种循环的普适定常流内可逆制冷循环最优性能

用有限时间热力学方法分析了一类普适定常流内可逆制冷机循环,导出了存在传热损失时,由一个吸热过程、一个放热过程和两个绝热过程组成的一类普适的定常流内可逆制冷机循环的制冷率、制冷系数、(火用)损失率、(火用)输出率和生态学性能,并由数值计算分析了循环过程对循环性能的影响特点.所得结果包含了内可逆Carnot、Diesel、Otto、Atkinson和Brayton制冷循环的特性.     

Design considerations for refrigeration cycles

The Carnot COP, which assumes a thermodynamically ideal cycle in which no irreversibilities exist, is often considered to be a design goal for actual cycles. However, the Carnot COP does not consider heat transfer mechanisms. Heat transfer at a finite rate is necessarily an irreversible process and unavoidable in a refrigeration cycle. The lack of consideration of rate processes reduces the usefulness of the Carnot COP as a realistic design goal. In this paper, the limitations of both thermodynamics and heat transfer are considered to identify a more realistic design goal for the COP of refrigeration cycles. The consideration of heat transfer limitations leads to a design rule for the optimum distribution of heat exchange area between the low- and high-temperature heat exchangers.     

Cryogenic design of liquid-nitrogen circulation system for long-length HTS cables with altitude variation

Liquid-nitrogen (LN₂) circulation systems with altitude variation are investigated and designed for application to practical long-length HTS cables. This study is motivated by the KEPCO’s immediate plan to install new HTS cables in existing utility tunnels including inclined and vertical sections. The distribution of pressure and temperature along the LN₂ circulation loop is examined for various geographic conditions, taking into account the gravitational effect of altitude variation. The cryogenic cooling requirements are defined in terms of the pressure and temperature of LN₂, and a design process is graphically demonstrated on phase diagram. It is concluded that the LN₂ flow rate along the cable with altitude variation should be carefully determined with the constraints on pressure and temperature, and the proposed graphical method is useful in the design.     

Discussion on refrigeration cycle for regenerative cryocoolers

Based on review and analysis of thermodynamic efficiency ε of the Carnot cycle and the cycle with two isothermal and two polytropic processes, another thermodynamic cycle with two isentropic and two polytropic processes, which can achieve the Carnot value of thermodynamic efficiency, is testified theoretically. Thermodynamic efficiency expressions of a number of ideal regenerative refrigeration cycles are derived, including the ideal pulse tube refrigeration cycle. A classified branch chart and a plot of ideal thermodynamic efficiency of regenerative refrigeration cycles are given for the purpose of comparison.     

A study on the surface flashover characteristics for a HTS cable termination

Terminal technology is important component to a HTS cable as well as a conventional cable. HTS cable terminations are required when the insulated shield HTS cables connect with other conductors such as a bus or a overhead lines. HTS cable terminations must span a temperature range from 77 K to 300 K. The termination is insulated with insulating oil or air, cryogenic gaseous nitrogen and liquid nitrogen. Particularly, difficult conditions for high voltage insulation had to be overcome with HTS cable. And, several environments can substantially raise the flashover possibility at the HTS cable termination. Therefore, in order to insulating design of HTS cable termination, this paper will report on experimental investigations of the surface flashover characteristics under various surface length and GFRP thickness in the atmospheric air, transformer oil, LN₂ at atmospheric pressure and complex condition.     

10米10.5kV/1.5kA三相交流高温超导电缆低温系统

低温系统是该试验装置的一个主要分系统,采用增压过冷液氮冷却高温超导电缆及其电流引线,是国内首次采用过冷液氮循环冷却高温超导电缆的低温系统.低温系统包括两大部分:过冷液氮循环部分和制冷部分.在过冷液氮循环部分,以低温泵的扬程作为循环流动动力,液氮通过与制冷部分的热交换,获取冷量,被输送到高温超导电缆低温容器和终端,液氮通过与电缆的换热释放其冷量,最后回到气液分离器,进入下一个循环过程.制冷部分采用液氮减压降温获取冷量,其最大制冷量3.3kW,液氮消耗72 L/h.     

新型CO2超音速两相膨胀制冷循环的理论研究

本文提出了以Laval喷管为核心部件的超音速两相膨胀机的概念,构建了以天然制冷剂CO2为工质的超音速两相膨胀制冷循环模型并对其进行理想循环热力学分析和模拟计算研究。结果表明：超音速两相膨胀机入口压力、入口温度和旋流分离段出口压力均对系统制冷性能有影响;在空调温区工况,CO2超音速两相膨胀制冷循环COP为6.69,是现有制冷性能相对最优的CO2跨临界制冷循环COP的1.63倍,且大幅降低系统压力;气液分离时液相速度损失对系统制冷性能有影响,系统COP由9.56减至6.01,相对卡诺效率由0.95减至0.60,但仍然保持在较高水平。通过初步的热力学分析和模拟计算研究表明,新型CO2超音速两相膨胀制冷循环具有较好的原理可行性和发展前景。     

A magnetic levitation rotating plate model based on high-Tc superconducting technology

With the wide requirements of the training aids and display models of science, technology and even industrial products for the public like schools, museums and pleasure grounds, a simple-structure and long-term stable-levitation technology is needed for these exhibitions. Opportunely, high temperature superconducting (HTS) technology using bulk superconductors indeed has prominent advantages on magnetic levitation and suspension for its self-stable characteristic in an applied magnetic field without any external power or control. This paper explores the feasibility of designing a rotatable magnetic levitation (maglev) plate model with HTS bulks placed beneath a permanent magnet (PM) plate. The model is featured with HTS bulks together with their essential cryogenic equipment above and PMs below, therefore it eliminates the unclear visual effects by spray due to the low temperature coolant such as liquid nitrogen (LN₂) and additional levitation weight of the cryogenic equipment. Besides that, a matched LN₂ automation filling system is adopted to help achieving a long-term working state of the rotatable maglev plate. The key low-temperature working condition for HTS bulks is maintained by repeatedly opening a solenoid valve and automatically filling LN₂ under the monitoring of a temperature sensor inside the cryostat. With the support of the cryogenic devices, the HTS maglev system can meet all requirements of the levitating display model for exhibitions, and may enlighten the research work on HTS maglev applications.     

Improving the performance of small Joule–Thomson cryocooler

This paper presents a new cycle for improving the performance of small Joule–Thomson (JT) cryocooler by applying an additional ejector in cycle system. Based on the presented JT cycle with an additional ejector (JTE), the performance of small JT cryocooler operating with pure N₂ and the mixture N₂?CH₄ for cryogenic applications in a temperature range of 80–130 K is investigated by theoretical calculations. It can be found that the refrigeration efficiency of the JTE cryocooler operating with pure N₂ increase by 55.6–25.1%, and the refrigeration capacity increase by a factor of 4.9–1.5 compared to a conventional JT cryocooler. Similar performance improvements are also obtained when the mixture N₂?CH₄ is used as the working gas. The refrigeration efficiency increase by 46.6–17.7% and the refrigeration capacity increase by a factor of 3.8–1.3. It is concluded that the performance of small JT cryocooler can be significantly improved based on the presented JTE cycle.     

Magnetic refrigerator for hydrogen liquefaction

This paper reviews the status of magnetic refrigeration system for hydrogen liquefaction. There is no doubt that hydrogen is one of most important energy sources in the near future. In particular, liquid hydrogen can be utilized for infrastructure construction consisting of storage and transportation. When we compare the consuming energy of hydrogen liquefaction with high pressurized hydrogen gas, FOM must be larger than 0.57 for hydrogen liquefaction. Thus, we need to develop a highly efficient liquefaction method. Magnetic refrigeration using the magneto-caloric effect has potential to realize not only the higher liquefaction efficiency >50%, but also to be environmentally friendly and cost effective. Our hydrogen magnetic refrigeration system consists of Carnot cycle for liquefaction stage and AMR (active magnetic regenerator) cycle for precooling stages. For the Carnot cycle, we develop the high efficient system with >80% liquefaction efficiency by using the heat pipe. For the AMR cycle, we studied two kinds of displacer systems, which transferred the working fluid. We confirmed the AMR effect with the cooling temperature span of 12 K for 1.8 T of the magnetic field and 6 s of the cycle. By using the simulation, we estimate the efficiency of the hydrogen liquefaction plant for 10 kg/day. A FOM of 0.47 is obtained for operation temperature between 20 K and 77 K including LN₂ work input.     

Development of 500 m HTS power cable in super-ACE project

A high temperature superconducting power cable (HTS power cable) is highly promises as a low cost and large capacity power line. An HTS cable is also effective in increasing power capacity of underground cable in a city part. A demonstration of a 500 m HTS cable that contributes to research for commercial applications was planned in a part of “Super-ACE project” of METI (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry). Furukawa Electric has been taking charge of designing, manufacturing and installation of the 500 m cable. The cable is a 77 kV 1 kA single-core cable with liquid nitrogen (LN₂) impregnated paper insulation. The manufacturing and the installation of the cable have been completed in November 2003, and now preparations of peripheral equipments are proceeding for a test starting in March 2004. This paper describes the design, manufacturing and installation of the 500 m HTS cable.     

Performance evaluation of combined adsorption refrigeration cycles

This paper presents the results of an investigation on the performance of combined adsorption refrigeration cycles. The novel combined cycle amalgamates the activated carbon (AC)-R507A as the bottoming cycle and AC-R134a cycle as the topping cycle and deliver refrigeration load at as low as −10 °C at the bottoming cycle. The cycle simulation is based on the experimentally confirmed adsorption isotherms, kinetics and isosteric heat of adsorption data for R134a and R507A on highly porous based activated carbon of type Maxsorb III. The optimum cooling capacity, coefficient of performance (COP) and chiller efficiency are calculated in terms of cycle time, switching time, regeneration and brine inlet temperatures. Results show that the combined adsorption cycles are feasible even when low-temperature heat source is available.     

A novel CO2 refrigeration system achieved by CO2 solid–gas two-phase fluid and its basic study on system performance

In this report, a new CO₂ refrigeration system is introduced, which can achieve a refrigeration capability below the CO₂ triple point of ?56.6 °C. The proposed CO₂ refrigeration system consists of two thermodynamic cycles arranged in cascade, where one is a CO₂ trans-critical cycle and another is a trans-triple-point cycle. An experimental set-up is constructed and tested in order to obtain a basic knowledge about this CO₂ system. Based on the measured data, it is concluded that the built CO₂ refrigeration system can operate continuously and stably, although dry ice particles exist in the closed CO₂ loops. An average COP (a ratio of cooling energy to the compressor power consumption) is measured at 2.45 in the present experiment range for the low-pressure system of the experimental set-up. In addition, the influence of the condensation temperature on the refrigeration cycle is investigated and more studies are needed for the future optimization work.     

On conduction-cooling of a high-temperature superconducting cable

Current generation high-temperature superconducting (HTS) power transmission cables use liquid nitrogen as a coolant that circulates along the cable. In this work, the use of axial conduction-cooling in attaining HTS temperatures in transmission lines is proposed. Liquid coolant use is envisioned only at periodic length intervals along the transmission lines, in combination with insulation and copper. The proposed concept is feasible due to the high thermal conductivity of pure copper at cryogenic temperatures. A basic design for the insulated cable is proposed and a detailed numerical simulation of heat transfer in such a cable is carried out for various case studies considering the superconducting materials MgB₂ and BSCCO-2223.     

Stirling-type pulse tube refrigerator with slit-type heat exchangers for HTS superconducting motor

A cryogenic refrigeration system is one of the indispensable components for cooling superconducting motor or generator. Among various configurations of cryogenic refrigeration system, the on-board refrigeration system is considered to be attractive for compactness and small heat leak. In order to turn this concept into reality, we focus on two essential points; development of the specific structure for on-board refrigeration and optimal design of the refrigerator. Since the on-board refrigeration system should not create unbalanced vibration, the inline Stirling-type pulse tube refrigerator is considered as a good candidate and more concrete and efficient structure is developed under the design constraints. The dynamic absorber is used to maintain the dynamic stability of the single acting linear compressor. To increase thermal Carnot efficiency with the on-board Stirling-type pulse tube refrigerator, slit-type heat exchangers are implemented and flow straighteners are carefully designed by the three-dimensional CFD simulation. The overall configuration of the Stirling-type pulse tube refrigerator is designed and fabricated by the optimal process. The present on-board refrigerator has the cooling capacity of 7 W at 59.5 K with the Carnot efficiency of 10.9%. According to these experimental results, the pulse tube refrigerator as the on-board refrigeration system possesses a sufficient thermal efficiency despite the restricted design configuration. The on-board refrigeration is considered as a useful method for cooling HTS superconducting motor.     

Analysis and optimisation of different two-stage transcritical carbon dioxide cycles for heating applications

Increased interest in the environmental impact of refrigeration technology is leading toward design solutions aimed at improving the energy efficiency and use of eco-friendly refrigerants with low GWP. The aim of this paper is to theoretically analyse R744 air to water heat pump cycles for heating applications up to 80 °C. This work studies the following cycle configurations: two-stage with injection (with and without intermediated cooling between compressors) and a single-stage circuit coupled with an auxiliary circuit. Internal heat transfer among the different streams of refrigerant is included, and the cycles have been optimised with regards to COP in terms of the intermediate conditions and gas cooler pressure. Finally, these cycles have been compared and analysed among each other and with a subcritical injection cycle working with R134a and a single-stage R744 cycle. The improved cycle with R744 can represent a global improvement of 15% in terms of COP.