Shale Gas Well Completions and Maximizing Gas Recoveries

It is shown that stress fields within the earth are the principle control for hydraulic fracture direction in horizontal shale gas wells. Hydraulic fracturing is a process of increasing permeability within gas shales and involves a sophisticated organization of technology, good planning and proper management of equipment over a very short time period to be successful. The direction and extent of the induced fractures can be determined in near real-time at the well site via application of earthquake seismology theory in a now common process known as frac mapping. Next to the horizontal lateral azimuth, the total volume of slurry pumped into the well is a major factor in determining well EURs. Vertical fracture growth can be controlled and is important in concentration of the slurry within the main zone target zone that has the high TOC and porosity. Cemented casing with perforations is currently the most used method for zone isolation. New open-hole sleeve packers may eventually provide more flexibility in fracture design while also providing a means for refracturing multi-stage fractured horizontal wells, a technique not now commonly available. Multi-Stage fracture design requires incorporating rock properties with fracturing effect simulations and then verifying results using 3D reservoir simulations. Maximizing the gas recovery factors and EURs can be accomplished through use of closely spaced laterals with inter-fingered fracture stages and exploiting the stress shadow fracturing phenomenon. Even greater EURs may be possible if the wells can be refractured thereby opening up additional permeability channels. Shale gas development has progressed in an environmentally sensitive manner within the U.S. and will continue in this manner. During the past ten years, all of these technologies have been either newly developed or were the advancement of existing technology with modifications. The opportunity exists to take these proven technologies to other areas of the world for exploitation of shale gas reservoirs.     

The characteristics of recycling gas drilling technology

Recycling gas drilling is a new drilling technology. This paper can be divided into three parts, with the purpose of introducing and analyzing the characteristics of this new technology. First, the major equipment characteristic of this technology was introduced. Secondly, compared with conventional gas drilling, Angel’s model was used to analyze the wellbore flow characteristics. Due to the closed loop and the effect of back pressure caused by the equipment, the gas flow rate decreases dramatically during drilling. Apart from this, it is also found that the kinetic energy at the casing shoe is always smaller than that at the top of the collar. The proposing of the drilling limit concept points out the basic difference between the two gas drilling technologies. Lastly, according to the results of the theoretical analysis, gas supplement operations for the wellbore must be conducted. Thus, two gas supplement schemes are presented in this paper, to provide some guidance for field operations.     

Recent Advancements in Petroleum E & P Equipments in China

The role of equipments in oil and gas exploration and development had never been attached with so much importance as that in shale oil and gas boom in the U.S. With the help of massive hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling techniques, the U.S., the world＇s No. 1 oil importer even started to dream about energy self-sufficiency with its proudly high production of shale oil and gas from several major shale plays in the country. However, what behind this remarkable achievement are powerful multi-stage hydraulic fracturing machinery and smart tools for directional drilling.     

Shale Gas Play Screening and Evaluation Criteria

The uniqueness of shale gas plays is contrasted with conventional oil and gas exploration. Based on our ten year history in shale gas exploration, a practical 17 point list of criteria to use for screening shale gas projects and ranking that encompasses geoscience, geochemistry, reservoir engineering, drilling, completions and production operations is developed and explained. Other considerations that will impact shale gas development are identified and discussed. Some key methodologies to incorporate in the evaluation process are also proposed. The outcome of this proposed screening process, if rigorously applied, should quickly identify the projects that have the most likely chance for success for recommendation to management. Examples from active shale gas plays in the United States are used to support these criteria and references to relevant recent publications and presentations are provided.     

Limit analysis of extended reach drilling in South China Sea

Extended reach wells （ERWs）, especially horizontal extended reach well with a high HD （horizontal displacement） to TVD （true vertical depth） ratio, represent a frontier technology and challenge the drilling limitations. Oil and gas reservoir in beaches or lakes and offshore can be effectively exploited by using extended reach drilling （ERD） technology. This paper focuses on the difficult technological problems encountered during exploiting the Liuhua 11-1 oil field in the South China Sea, China. Emphasis is on investigating the key subjects including prediction and control of open hole limit extension in offshore ERD, prediction of casing wear and its prevention and torque reduction, φ244.5mm casing running with floating collars to control drag force, and steerable drilling modes. The basic concept of limit extension in ERD is presented and the prediction method for open hole limit extension is given in this paper. A set of advanced drilling mechanics and control technology has been established and its practical results are verified by field cases. All those efforts may be significant for further investigating and practicing ERD limit theory and control technology in the future.     

New development of theories in gas drilling

Theories established from engineering fundamentals have been of great value in supporting the design and execution of drilling operations in gas drilling where gas is used as a drilling fluid.This work presents an overview of new theories developed in recent years for special gas drilling operations including horizontal wells.These new theories are found in the areas of gas-mixture flow hydraulics in deviated and horizontal boreholes,hole cleaning of solids accumulation,hole cleaning of formation water,flow diverging for washout control,bit orifice optimization,and depression of formation water influx.This paper provides drilling engineers with updated mathematical models and methods for optimizing design to improve gas drilling performance.     

The performance of stochastic designs in wellbore drilling operations

Wellbore drilling operations frequently entail the combination of a wide range of variables. This is underpinned by the numerous factors that must be considered in order to ensure safety and productivity. The heterogeneity and sometimes unpredictable behaviour of underground systems increases the sensitivity of drilling activities. Quite often the operating parameters are set to certify effective and efficient working processes. However, failings in the management of drilling and operating conditions sometimes result in catastrophes such as well collapse or fluid loss. This study investigates the hypothesis that optimising drilling parameters, for instance mud pressure, is crucial if the margin of safe operating conditions is to be properly defined. This was conducted via two main stages: first a deterministic analysis—where the operating conditions are predicted by conventional modelling procedures—and then a probabilistic analysis via stochastic simulations—where a window of optimised operation conditions can be obtained. The outcome of additional stochastic analyses can be used to improve results derived from deterministic models. The incorporation of stochastic techniques in the evaluation of wellbore instability indicates that margins of the safe mud weight window are adjustable and can be extended considerably beyond the limits of deterministic predictions. The safe mud window is influenced and hence can also be amended based on the degree of uncertainty and the permissible level of confidence. The refinement of results from deterministic analyses by additional stochastic simulations is vital if a more accurate and reliable representation of safe in situ and operating conditions is to be obtained during wellbore operations.     

An experimental study of shear strength of gas-hydrate-bearing core samples

The shear strength of gas-hydrate-bearing reservoirs is one of the most important parameters used to study mechanical properties of gas-hydrate-bearing reservoirs.The shear strength of gas-hydratebearing reservoirs changes with filling and cementation of gas hydrates,which will affect the wellbore and reservoir stability.Traditional shear tests could not be conducted on gas-hydrate-bearing core samples because the gas hydrates exist under a limited range of temperature and pressure conditions.This paper describes a novel shear apparatus for studying shear strength of gas-hydrate-bearing core samples under original reservoir conditions.The preparation of gas-hydrate-bearing core samples and subsequent shear tests are done in the same cell.Cohesion and internal friction angle of the core samples with different saturations of gas hydrates were measured with the apparatus.The effect of gas hydrates on the shear strength of reservoirs was quantitatively analyzed.This provides a foundation for studying wellbore and reservoir stability of gas-hydrate-bearing reservoirs.     

Application of Stochastic Modeling Technique Constrained by Multilateral Horizontal Well

Introduction With the advancement of horizontal well drilling and completion techniques,horizontal well is widely used in the oilfield development and has brought enormous economic benefits.The GeoSteering technique also provides a new solution to further exploit the thin low-permeability carbonate reservoirs,enabling the redevelopment of oilfields that could not be economically developed by vertical well.Horizontal well will be one of the most promising techniques in oil production to some extent.In this study,the information like horizontal well trajectory and well logging data are effectively used,which successfully contribute to the higher-precision model and more accurate reservoir prediction.     

3D finite element modelling of multilateral junction wellbore stability

Wellbore failure can occur at different stages of operations. For example, wellbore collapse might happen during drilling and/or during production. The drilling process results in the removal of an already stressed rock material. If the induced stresses near the wellbore exceed the strength of rock, wellbore failure occurs. The production process also changes the effective stresses around the wellbore. Such changes in stresses can be significant for high drawdown pressures and can trigger wellbore failure. In this paper, the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion with a hyperbolic hardening is used. The model parameters are identified from triaxial compression tests. The numerical simulations of laboratory tests showed that the model can reproduce the mechanical behaviour of sandstone. In addition, the simulations of multilateral junction stability experiments showed that the model was able to reproduce yielding and failure at the multilateral junction for different levels of applied stresses. Finally, a numerical example examining multilateral junction stability in an open borehole during drilling and production is presented. The results illustrate the development of a localized failure zone proximate to the area where two wellbore tracks join, particularly on the side with a sharp approaching angle, which would significantly increase the risk of wellbore collapse at the junction.     

页岩气钻井关键技术及难点研究

随着世界能源发展需求,页岩气已成为全球能源界焦点。页岩气的独特特征使其开发技术不同于常规油气。阐述了页岩气水平井钻井技术,页岩气进入井眼途径、钻井井位部署和浅层大位移井技术为页岩气钻井关键技术。指出页岩气钻井技术难点主要有井壁稳定技术、井眼轨迹优化设计和控制技术、下套管与固井技术、降摩阻技术、井眼清洗技术。     

河南油田页岩油长水平段水平井钻井实践

河南油田泌阳凹陷泥页岩油气藏储量丰富,是下一步河南油田的替代资源。水平井钻井技术是当前页岩油气开发的主流技术,应用水平井钻井技术,结合水力压裂技术能够实现致密页岩油气藏的商业开发。以泌页HF1井为例,从井身结构与井眼剖面设计、轨迹控制技术、钻井液技术和固井技术等方面介绍了河南油田页岩油长水平段水平井钻井施工中的关键技术,为类似区块应用水平井技术开发致密页岩油气藏提供技术借鉴。     

四川盆地深层页岩气水平井优快钻井技术——以泸203井为例

泸203井是中国石油天然气集团有限公司部署在四川盆地南部泸县—长宁页岩气区块的1口重点超深页岩气探井,实际完钻井深达5 600 m,测试日产气量为137.9×10~4 m~3,成为目前国内首口单井测试日产量超百万立方米的页岩气井。为了给深层页岩气井优快钻井提供借鉴和经验,以泸203井为例,在分析储层特征对钻井要求的基础上,归纳总结了保障该井页岩气水平井钻井井身质量、优质储层钻遇率、快速钻进以及降低复杂事故率的优快钻井综合配套技术,并对其应用效果进行了评价。研究结果表明:(1)采用旋转导向工具并配合钻柱扭摆系统钻进,减少了滑动定向钻进进尺,成功地控制了钻具托压现象,大幅度降低了定向辅助时间;(2)实施的4种削减钻具振动措施很好地解决了水平段钻进中螺杆故障问题,进一步提高了钻井速度;(3)采用近钻头伽马测量系统实时追踪储层,控制轨迹在优质产层内钻进,保证了优质页岩储层钻遇率;(4)优配钻井装备及高密度的油基钻井液的应用保证了井下动力钻具的动力和井眼携砂的需求以及钻井液性能的净化,确保了井眼畅通、保持了井壁稳定,起到了提高钻井速度的重要作用。结论认为,泸203井按照地质工程一体化的技术思路,采取先打直导眼再侧钻水平井的方式,优质页岩储层钻遇率达到100%,该井的实施进一步完善了四川盆地新区块超深页岩气水平井配套优快钻井技术。     

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??During the drilling of shale gas horizontal wells with such new techniques as gas drilling and PDC bit + rotary steering drilling, a mass of fine-grained or powder-like cuttings are often generated, making it hard to identify the stratum lithology through cutting logging, and to track and interpret shale gas reservoirs. As a result, a number of Class-I shale gas reservoirs were missed in well drilling initially, which hindered directly the horizontal well production and ultimate recovery. In this study, the natural gamma-ray spectral logging was applied in the Lower Silurian Longmaxi shale gas reservoir in the Sichuan Basin. This technique has the following advantages. (1) High adaptability. It can be applied in stratigraphic correlation and division to diagnose good shale gas reservoirs in the wells drilled by using new techniques. (2) Good timeliness. It can be used to identify accurately the Longmaxi reservoirs and track the horizontal wellbore by logging while drilling, so that the wellbore trajectory can be adjusted in real time to efficiently penetrate good shale reservoirs. (3) Strong pertinency. The method for calculating the total organic carbon content (TOC) of shale gas reservoirs is established, and based on the criteria of classification in the region, shale reservoirs are classified. Field applications show that the natural gamma-ray spectral logging facilitates the quantitative organic carbon content interpretation while drilling and the division of layers in shale gas wells. Therefore, this technique provides a powerful support for the horizontal well geo-steering drilling to penetrate more shale gas reservoirs.     

鄂尔多斯盆地延长组页岩气井壁稳定钻井液

针对鄂尔多斯盆地延长组页岩气水平井钻井过程中存在的裸眼井壁失稳问题,对该组地层进行理化性能分析,明确了导致页岩井壁失稳的主要因素,即钻井液滤液沿地层微裂缝进入地层引起伊蒙混层膨胀,岩石强度降低,为此提出了采用油包水乳化钻井液的技术对策。在此基础上,通过室内实验优选了一套页岩水平井油包水乳化钻井液。室内性能评价实验表明：该体系可加重至1.60 g/cm3,破乳电压高于800 V,抗温120℃,封堵突破压力为7.28 MPa,浸泡后对页岩强度影响较小,能够有效抑制页岩膨胀和封堵裂缝性地层,对于解决该区页岩气钻井过程中的井壁失稳问题具有指导意义。     

国内页岩气长水平井JY2-5HF井钻井液技术

JY2-5HF井是中石化在重庆涪陵页岩气田部署的一口开发评价井,完钻井深5965 m,水平段长3065 m。该井二开中下部钻遇地层主要为泥页岩井段,存在井壁垮塌、卡钻、漏失等潜在风险,使用多元协同防塌水基钻井液（BT-200钻井液）钻井,主要处理剂有抑制剂BT-200、K-HPAN、KCl、井壁稳定剂、乳化沥青、非渗透处理剂、聚合醇、多功能固体润滑剂和QS-2。水平段要求钻井液除了具有较强的化学及物理防塌能力,还须具有良好的润滑及悬浮性能,采用了油水比为90:10的油基钻井液,水相为26% CaCl₂水溶液,破乳电压控制在900 V以上。现场实践表明,该套钻井液较好地满足了井下和钻井工程的需要;页岩气井长水平段钻进较适宜采用旋转导向和油基钻井液;压裂后测出的地层压力系数普遍比钻进时高0.1~0.2,建议设计钻井液密度时减去。      

页岩气长水平段水平井井眼轨迹控制技术

利用长水平段水平井提高单井产量是页岩气开发的发展趋势,涪陵页岩气田开发调整阶段将超长水平井作为增产提效的主要措施之一。但随着水平段的增加,钻井技术挑战进一步加剧:长裸眼水平段延伸极限预测难度大、井筒净化困难、摩阻扭矩大、井身剖面优化难度大、轨迹控制难度高。为此,本项目通过井眼轨道优化设计、极限延伸能力预测分析、钻具组合优配、降摩减阻技术配套和井眼清洁技术配套,形成了页岩气长水平段高效轨迹控制技术体系。形成的研究成果指导了焦页2-5HF和焦页30-5HF井的定向钻井工程实践,创国内长水平段纪录。     

力化耦合作用下的层理性页岩气水平井井壁失稳研究

针对现有页岩气水平井井壁稳定力化耦合分析大都仅考虑水化作用对岩石强度的影响,鲜有考虑水化应力应变影响的情况,以弹性力学和岩石力学等理论为基础,同时考虑水化作用对岩石力学参数的弱化效应和附加水化应力,建立了力化耦合作用下层理性页岩气水平井井壁坍塌压力预测模型,研究了层理性页岩气水平井井壁失稳机理,分析了影响井壁稳定的因素及影响规律。研究结果表明:存在层理面时,会使坍塌压力大幅升高;沿层理面方位钻进,井壁稳定性最好;当水化时间一定时,坍塌压力随距井壁径向距离增加而降低,水化时间越长,近井壁处易坍塌区域越大;考虑水化应力影响后坍塌压力会大幅升高,在设计钻井液密度时,不能忽略水化应力的影响。研究成果丰富了页岩气水平井井壁失稳理论,对层理性页岩气水平井钻井设计具有指导作用。      

逆流自吸效应对页岩油储层坍塌压力的影响研究

页岩油储层在采用水基钻井液欠平衡钻进时,由于毛细管力作用,钻井液滤液仍会进入地层,降低地层稳定性。为此,进行了逆流自吸效应对页岩油储层坍塌压力的影响规律研究。基于两相渗流理论,建立了逆流自吸作用下的水侵模型,分析发现页岩油储层井眼附近的含水饱和度随欠压差值增大而降低;在考虑水化作用对地层岩石强度的影响的基础上,建立了井周应力模型,对页岩油储层的坍塌压力当量密度变化规律进行了分析。研究发现:逆流自吸作用下,钻井时间越长,欠压差值越小,页岩油储层坍塌压力越大,越不利于井眼稳定;当只改变欠压差值时,页岩油储层最大井径扩大率存在最小值。研究认为,建立的井周应力模型可为页岩油储层欠平衡钻井设置合理欠压差值以及调整钻井液密度提供理论依据。      

考虑井壁稳定及增产效果的页岩气水平井段方位优化方法

针对页岩气水平井钻井过程中常见的井壁失稳垮塌问题,为提高井壁稳定性和为后期压裂增产提供良好的条件,分析了层理面产状和地应力类型对井壁稳定性的影响,并对压裂缝与水平井段夹角,以及与水平气井产量之间的关系进行了研究,进而提出了通过对水平井段方位的优化来提高井壁稳定性和改善压裂增产效果的技术思路:利用川南地区页岩气井的测井、地应力及岩石力学资料,通过页岩层理面破坏模型及本体破坏模型分析计算出不同方位角下的井壁坍塌压力,找出井壁稳定性最好时井眼与层理面产状和地应力类型之间的关系;通过对压裂缝延伸方向的分析,得出了压裂缝的一般延伸规律;利用产能公式计算裂缝与水平井段呈不同夹角时的产量,以此获得了裂缝与水平井段夹角影响压裂效果的规律。还以川南地区的W201-H3井为例,充分考虑页岩气井壁稳定及增产效果,提出了有针对性的水平井段方位优化设计,使该井能在保持良好井壁稳定性的前提下获得良好的增产效果。