Test and Modelling of Impact on Pre-Loaded Composite Panels

Currently test and simulation of low and high speed impact of Aerospace composite structures is undertaken in an unloaded state. In reality this may not be the case and significant internal stresses could be present during an impact event such as bird strike during landing, or takeoff. In order to investigate the effects of internal loading on damage and failure of composite materials a series of experimental and simulation studies have been undertaken on three composite types having different fibres, resins and lay-ups. For each composite type panels have been manufactured and transversely impacted under the condition of ‘unloading’ or ‘pre-loading’. For preloading a rig has been constructed that can impose a constant in plane strain of up to 0.25% prior to impact. Results have clearly shown that preloading does lower the composite impact tolerance and change the observed failure modes. Simulation of experiments have also been conducted and have provided an encouraging agreement with test results in terms of both impact force time histories and prediction of the observed failure mechanisms.     

明胶鸟弹撞击复合材料蜂窝夹芯板试验

开展明胶鸟弹撞击复合材料蜂窝夹芯板试验,研究夹芯结构在软体高速冲击下的损伤形式,分析相关因素对结构动态响应结果的影响。通过CT扫描对复合材料蜂窝夹芯板内部进行检测可知,面板出现分层、基体开裂、纤维断裂、凹陷、向胞内屈曲等损伤形式,蜂窝芯出现芯材压溃、与面板脱粘的损伤形式;分析复合材料蜂窝夹芯板后面板的动态变形过程及撞击中心处位移-时间数据可知,复合材料蜂窝夹芯板在撞击过程中出现由全局弯曲变形主导和局部变形主导的两种变形模式;通过对比不同工况下的复合材料蜂窝夹芯板损伤程度可知,复合材料蜂窝夹芯板损伤程度随鸟弹撞击速度的增加而增大;蜂窝芯高度为10 mm的复合材料蜂窝夹芯板较蜂窝芯高度为5 mm的复合材料蜂窝夹芯板的损伤程度大;初始动能较大的球形鸟弹较圆柱形鸟弹对复合材料蜂窝夹芯板造成的冲击损伤程度更大。      

A Method to Apply Structure Relevant Impact Damage to Small Structure Relevant Specimens for Damage Tolerance Studies

An approach is presented to represent stiffened composite panels by small but ‘structure relevant’ (SR) specimens in compression tests to study failure mechanisms. The necessary support conditions to be applied during low velocity impact tests were determined for the SR specimens in order to obtain damage that is similar to the damage found in stiffened panels. Fractography revealed that the locations of the major delaminations in the SR specimens due to impact were the same as in stiffened panels. These delaminations occurred where they were expected, suggesting that they can be ‘placed’ deep inside a laminate for optimum damage tolerance. Initial compression tests on stiffened panels confirmed the high damage tolerance of the configuration considered.     

基于不同构型辅助梁的民机尾翼前缘设计与抗鸟撞性能研究

民用飞机对尾翼前缘的抗鸟撞性能有很高要求。某型民机尾翼前缘原始辅助梁为铝合金机加件,为了优化其抗鸟撞性能,提出了两种使用铝合金钣金辅助梁的尾翼前缘新构型。通过PAM-CRASH软件对三种前缘的抗鸟撞性能进行了数值计算,并根据计算结果在两种新构型中选择了抗鸟撞性能更好的作为优选构型。针对前缘原始构型和和优选构型开展鸟撞试验和试后计算分析。数值计算和试验结果都表明,该研究提出的带"波纹加强筋"的钣金辅助梁结构没有硬点,且材料延展性较好,可以通过结构发生大变形、紧固件大量失效吸收鸟撞过程中的能量,从而大幅提高尾翼前缘的抗鸟撞性能,而且该结构还具有明显的质量优势,可以应用于民机尾翼前缘抗鸟撞设计。     

Hybrid approach in bird strike damage prediction on aeronautical composite structures

This paper deals with the problem of numerical prediction of bird strike induced damage on aeronautical structures. The problem of soft body impacts has been tackled by applying a hybrid Eulerian Lagrangian technique, thereby avoiding numerical difficulties associated with extensive mesh distortion. Eulerian modeling of the bird impactor resulted in a more realistic behavior of bird material during impact, which has lead to an enhanced response of the impacted structure. The work presented in this paper is focused on damage modeling in composite items of aeronautical structures. The bird impactor model and damage modeling approaches have been validated by comparison with experimental gas gun results available in the open literature, while the complete damage prediction procedure has been demonstrated on a complex airplane flap structure finite element model.     

FE analysis of geometry effects of an artificial bird striking an aeroengine fan blade

Bird strike resistance of aeroengines is a strict certification requirement. Apart from costly experimental bird strike tests, explicit numerical modeling techniques have been employed. However, due to the complicated bird geometry, artificial bird models are still not well defined and it is a perennial problem selecting an appropriate representative artificial bird geometry for the simulations. To examine the relative effects of the artificial bird geometry, explicit 3-D finite element analyses are conducted herein using the commercial code LS-DYNA. As a validation test, we first studied the nonlinear transient dynamic response of an artificial bird striking a rigid flat target. Following the validation, we studied the impact behavior of an artificial bird impinging a flexible aeroengine fan blade. The study focused on the three most-frequently used configurations in the literature: namely, hemispherical-ended cylinder, straight-ended cylinder, and ellipsoid, at various length-to-diameter aspect ratios. The results show that the initial contact area between the bird and target in the early phase of the impact event would have a significant effect on the peak impact force. The aspect ratio of the bird striking both rigid panel and flexible fan blade was found to have little influence on the normalized impact force and impulse.     

Modelling of Bird Strike on an Aircraft Wing Leading Edge Made from Fibre Metal Laminates – Part 2: Modelling of Impact with SPH Bird Model

Fibre Metal Laminates with layers of aluminium alloy and high strength glass fibre composite have been reported to possess excellent impact properties and be suitable for aircraft parts likely to be subjected to impacts such as runway debris or bird strikes. In a collaborative research project, aircraft wing leading edge structures with a glass-based FML skin have been designed, built, and subjected to bird strike tests that have been modelled with finite element analysis. In this second part of a two-part paper, a finite element model is developed for simulating the bird strike tests, using Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) for modelling the bird and the material model developed in Part 1 of the paper for modelling the leading edge skin. The bird parameters are obtained from a system identification analysis of strikes on flat plates. Pre-test simulations correctly predicted that the bird did not penetrate the leading edge skin, and correctly forecast that one FML lay-up would deform more than the other. Post test simulations included a model of the structure supporting the test article, and the predicted loads transferred to the supporting structure were in good agreement with the experimental values. The SPH bird model showed no signs of instability and correctly modelled the break-up of the bird into particles. The rivets connecting the skin to the ribs were found to have a profound effect on the performance of the structure.     

鸟撞飞机风挡的一体化数值模拟技术

鸟体本构模型及其参数的确定是影响鸟撞飞机风挡数值模拟结果的重要因素,也是一直困扰大家的难题。为提高模拟结果的准确性,将鸟体模型识别和数值模拟相结合,提出鸟撞飞机风挡数值模拟的一体化技术。重点阐述鸟体本构模型及其参数的优化反演方法,并结合计算实例给出该技术的分析过程。这些工作进一步完善了鸟撞有限元数值模拟的耦合解法理论,对飞机结构的抗鸟撞研究具有一定的参考价值。     

Experiment-Based Explicit Dynamics Analysis for Bird Strike Damage Prediction in Composite Structures

Bird strike analysis is a common type of analysis performed during the design and analysis of rotorcraft. These simulations are carried out in order to predict whether various designs will pass the necessary certification tests. In the past, the only way to determine whether forward-facing aeronautical composite structures could withstand bird strikes was with time-consuming physical tests. In the research of bird striking, the bird impact test is the most effective method. But the existing data of test results are highly disperse, so that they do less help for the design of aeronautical composite structures and also cost more. Tests usually needed to be repeated several times because components often failed and were required for each new design. There is a large variability in numerical bird models, composite modeling approaches and complexity of simulation processes to design the sandwich structures of an aircraft. This paper investigates the composite structures modeling for bird strike phenomenon by using state-of-the-art modeling tools capable of predicting the experiment-based composite structural damage, damage location, failure size and failure mode due to impact and addresses a critical review on analysis techniques. This paper also demonstrates the state-of-the-art bird strike simulation methodology developed, and the accuracy of modeling approaches available in explicit codes is discussed.     

复合材料雷达罩耐鸟撞和电磁性能综合优化设计

对蜂窝夹芯复合材料雷达罩进行耐鸟撞优化设计以及耐鸟撞和电磁性能综合优化设计,优化设计变量是雷达罩分段后的总厚度和比例等,耐撞性优化目标是最大限度的减小雷达罩的损伤面积和保护雷达罩内的设备安全,体现在数值计算中减小雷达罩的失效单元数和鸟体的剩余动能;耐鸟撞和电磁性能的综合优化目标除满足以上目标外,也要求使电磁参数指标达到最优。优化软件中集成了显式动力分析软件LS-DYNA和电磁分析软件FEKO,采用了适合于复合材料壳单元冲击损伤的Chang-Chang模型。某算例的优化结果表明：合理的优化设置可以实现蜂窝夹芯复合材料雷达罩的耐鸟撞和电磁性能优化要求,并提高工程设计效率。     

Evaluation of Stiffness Terms for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Z</Emphasis>-cored Sandwich Panels

This paper presents a model for the stiffness terms of composite sandwich panels with structured cores (referred to as ‘z-core’ panels). Truss-cores, corrugated-cores and double-corrugated cores containing a polymeric foam were considered. The model was validated, both through finite element simulation and through comparison with the results of experimental three point bend tests on panels. A parametric study was performed to assess the performance of the different reinforced panel configurations.     

复合材料加筋壁板鸟撞动响应分析

考虑复合材料蜂窝夹芯结构的冲击损伤,采用接触碰撞耦合方法研究了复合材料加筋壁板的抗鸟撞性能。鸟撞方式包括垂直冲击和斜冲击两种,复合材料的冲击损伤模型采用Chang-Chang模型,分析了三种鸟撞速度下鸟撞性能参数如复合材料壁板的失效单元数、鸟体剩余动能和筋条的变形,以及复合材料壁板和筋条在某一鸟撞速度下应力随筋条数的变化规律。计算结果表明：垂直冲击和斜冲击下复合材料加筋壁板的抗鸟撞性能不同,并非筋条越多越有利于改善抗鸟撞性能,筋条有时还可能起反作用。     

State-of-the-Art Finite Element Modeling of Rotorcraft Main Rotor Blade for Bird Strike Damage Analysis

This paper demonstrates the state-of-the-art composite modeling methodology to investigate the bird strike phenomenon using available numerical bird models through experimental tests and simulation tools. The present work is based on the application of nonlinear explicit finite element analysis to simulate the response of rotorcraft main rotor blade root end under high velocity impact load. The damage behavior of blade made of composites under soft body impact depends upon bird size, blade size, blade span-wise location of impact and bird orientation with respect to hitting location, blade rotational speed and rotorcraft cruise speed. Bird model is considered as hydrodynamic with length-to-diameter ratio of 2. A bird strike event is characterized by loads of high intensity and short duration. A transient explicit nonlinear finite element-based impact analysis using Autodyn has been carried out to predict bird strike resistance to withstand 1.0 kg bird at critical flight condition. Numerical analysis indicates that blades do not tear which agrees well with the physical test conducted.     

Bird strike event monitoring in a composite UAV wing using high speed optical fiber sensing system

In this study, high speed bird strikes on a composite structure were successfully monitored using optical fiber sensors. Four multiplexed optical fiber sensors in a single cable were surface-bonded on the leading edge of a composite UAV wing box. In order to acquire those high frequency signals, a newly developed interrogation system was used to process strain signals from four sensors simultaneously at a sampling frequency of 100 kHz. Before the bird strike tests, pre-impact tests using a rubber hammer were performed to verify the suitability of the FBG signal acquisitions. The pre-test data were used in the neural network training procedures to estimate the bird strike locations. Then, the bird strike tests were accomplished using dummy projectiles and a pneumatic gun. The one-pound dummy birds, made of gelatin, hit the leading edge with a maximum speed of 201 km/h. The impact signals were successfully recorded during the tests and their frequency characteristics were then analyzed. Finally, the strike locations were estimated with the neural network which was trained through the pre-tests. The average error was 33.6 mm.     

Bird's substitute tests results and evaluation of available numerical methods

Recent bird impact tests were conducted using gelatine as a bird substitute. A recipe for the gelatine is suggested in order to use as a reference in further bird test certification procedures. Results from the tests are also given so that they can be used to validate numerical models and promote the use of numerical tools in aircraft design and certification process.     

Second and Third Peaks in the Non-resonant Microwave Absorption Spectra of Superconducting Bi2212 Crystals

Non-resonant microwave absorption (NMA) measurements at liquid nitrogen temperature with systematic microwave power variation showed a two-peak structure in the Bi-2212 textured crystals, similar to that observed in the Bi-2212 single crystals (Srinivasu et al., in J. Supercond. Incorp. Nov. Magn. 14:41, 2001). NMA signals from the aged Bi-2212 single crystals show an emergence of a ‘third peak’ as a function of microwave power. We qualitatively interpret these second and third peaks as due to the microwave power induced phase locking of several number of junctions into coherent groups and then the destruction of the phase locking by the applied DC field leading to decoupling or fluxon motion, which gives the loss in individual junctions belonging to these otherwise coherent groups.     

Hybrid approach in bird strike damage prediction on aeronautical composite structures

This paper deals with the problem of numerical prediction of bird strike induced damage on aeronautical structures. The problem of soft body impacts has been tackled by applying a hybrid Eulerian Lagrangian technique, thereby avoiding numerical difficulties associated with extensive mesh distortion. Eulerian modeling of the bird impactor resulted in a more realistic behavior of bird material during impact, which has lead to an enhanced response of the impacted structure. The work presented in this paper is focused on damage modeling in composite items of aeronautical structures. The bird impactor model and damage modeling approaches have been validated by comparison with experimental gas gun results available in the open literature, while the complete damage prediction procedure has been demonstrated on a complex airplane flap structure finite element model.     

Investigation of the behaviour of a chopped strand mat/woven roving/foam-Klegecell composite lamination structure during Charpy testing

This paper presents the investigation of the characteristic behaviour of polymer matrix composites under Charpy impact conditions with different design configurations of the laminate structure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the capability of different lamination designs for composite materials, in term of contact load, energy absorption, deflection and damage behaviour. In this study, laminated panels were fabricated using chopped strand mat (CSM), woven roving fabric (WR) and foam-PVC Klegecell as reinforcement with a combination of epoxy or polyester resin, respectively. Structural panels of composite laminates were produced using a hand lay-up technique. Each configuration design was impact tested to failure. Finite element analyses (FEA) were employed in this study to correlate the experimental value of energy absorption with simulation results. The characteristics of different reinforcement types, matrix type, hybrid type, architecture and orientation type were studied. These characteristics need to be considered, due to their affecting the characteristic behaviour of the composite lamination structures. Based on the results, it was found that differences in configuration design of the lamination structure of the polymer matrix composites do influence the strength and weakness of the materials.     

Exploiting group symmetry in truss topology optimization

We consider semidefinite programming (SDP) formulations of certain truss topology optimization problems, where a lower bound is imposed on the fundamental frequency of vibration of the truss structure. These SDP formulations were introduced in Ohsaki et al. (Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 180:203–217, 1999). We show how one may automatically obtain symmetric designs, by eliminating the ‘redundant’ symmetry in the SDP problem formulation. This has the advantage that the original SDP problem is substantially reduced in size for trusses with large symmetry groups.     

Bird strike damage analysis in aircraft structures using Abaqus/Explicit and coupled Eulerian Lagrangian approach

The subject of this paper is numerical prediction of bird strike induced damage in real aeronautical structures using highly detailed finite element models and modern numerical approaches. Due to the complexity of today’s aeronautical structures, numerical damage prediction methods have to be able to take into account various failure and degradation models of different materials. A continuum damage mechanics approach has been employed to simulate failure initiation and damage evolution in unidirectional composite laminates. Hashin’s failure initiation criteria have been employed in order to be able to distinct between four ply failure modes. The problem of soft body impacts has been tackled by applying the Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian technique, thereby avoiding numerical difficulties associated with extensive mesh distortion. This improvement in impactor deformation modelling resulted in a more realistic behaviour of bird material during impact. Numerical geometrical and material nonlinear transient dynamic analyses have been performed using Abaqus/Explicit. The main focus of the work presented in this paper is the application of the damage prediction procedure in damage assessment of bird impact on a typical large airliner inboard flap structure. Due to the high cost of gas-gun testing of aircraft components, experimental testing on the real flap structure could not have been performed. In order to evaluate the accuracy of the presented method, the bird and composite damage model have been validated against experimental data available in the literature.