Origin of the Doppler ultrasound spectrum from blood

Backscattering of an incident ultrasound beam by blood gives rise to a Doppler spectrum whose characteristics are affected not only by the velocity distribution, but also by certain basic aspects of the red blood cells (RBC's) behavior. Starting from fundamental assumptions, an explicit expression is derived for the Doppler spectrum in terms of the variance in the scatterer number density and the backscattering cross section. This shows that the Doppler power at a given frequency is weighted by the backscattering cross section and the manner in which the RBC's are packed (packing factor). Since spatial variations in the flow field can result in changes in the variance and backscattering cross section, the mean Doppler frequency will not necessarily be proportional to the mean flow through the sample volume. Experimental results for two different flow fields are used to illustrate these effects. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to volumetric flow estimation and the power mode display used in some color Doppler flow imaging systems     

A mean blood velocity statistic for the Doppler signal from anarrow ultrasound beam

An easily calculable statistic proportional to the instantaneous spatial mean blood velocity through a vessel cross section is derived from Doppler power spectral estimates for the case where the Doppler beam is assumed to be of negligible thickness compared to the vessel diameter. This is an alternative statistic to that derived where uniform insonation is assumed, an assumption thought to be poorer in many real cases. The main requirement is that the velocity profile is monotonic increasing from the vessel wall to the vessel center. Errors in each statistic are compared for a variety of true beam dimensions, using a variety of velocity profiles, and the new statistic is shown to incur less error for Gaussian beam response profiles with a standard deviation less than 0.4 of the vessel radius, or for rectangular response profiles with a width less than 0.65 of the vessel diameter. If an estimate can be made of the true beam dimensions and vessel diameter, a weighted sum of the two statistics can give a more accurate estimate of mean velocity. The case of a beam displaced from the center of the vessel is also considered, and errors are found to be less than 4% for a displacement of 20% of the vessel radius     

原子间相对运动速度分布对激光感生碰撞能量转移的影响

根据热平衡状态下的麦克斯韦速度分布函数,得到了三维空间中两原子间相对运动速度的分布函数。以四能级理论模型为基础,将此分布函数考虑到激光感生碰撞截面的计算之中,直接积分态振幅的运动方程,对弱场和强场两种情况下Eu-Sr系统中的一个激光感生碰撞过程进行了数值计算,得到了特定温度下系统的激光感生碰撞截面的谱线线型。将该数值计算的结果与以前的理论工作进行了比较,分析了两原子间相对运动速度分布对激光感生碰撞过程的影响。分析表明,两原子之间相对运动速度的统计分布虽然不影响激光感生碰撞截面的谱线线型,但对碰撞截面的峰值大小有一定的影响。结论与前人的理论预言相吻合,证明了数值计算的正确性。     

High-speed three-dimensional X-ray computed tomography: The dynamic spatial reconstructor

Most X-ray CT scanners require a few seconds to produce a single two-dimensional (2-D) image of a cross section of the body. The accuracy of full three-dimensional (3-D) images of the body synthesized from a contiguous set of 2-D images produced by sequential CT scanning of adjacent body slices is limited by 1) slice-to-slice registration (positioning of patient); 2) slice thickness; and 3) motion, both voluntary and involuntary, which occurs during the total time required to scan all slices. Therefore, this method is inadequate for true dynamic 3-D imaging of moving organs like the heart, lungs, and circulation. To circumvent these problems, the Dynamic Spatial Reconstructor (DSR) was designed by the Biodynamics Research Unit at the Mayo Clinic to provide synchronous volume imaging, that is stop-action (1/100 s), high-repetition rate (up to 60/s), simultaneous scanning of many parallel thin cross sections (up to 240, each 0.45 mm thick, 0.9 mm apart) spanning the entire anatomic extent of the bodily organ(s)of interest. These capabilities are achieved by using multiple X-ray sources and multiple 2-D fluoroscopic video camera assemblies on a continually rotating gantry. Desired tradeoffs between temporal, spatial, and density resolution can be achieved by retrospective selection and processing of appropriate subsets of the total data recorded during a continuous DSR scan sequence.     

Mean blood velocity measurement with a narrow ultrasound beam and an asymmetric velocity profile

Previous discussions of the measurement of spatial mean blood velocity using Doppler ultrasound with a narrow beam have required the velocity profile in the cross section to be symmetric about the vessel axis. A type of asymmetry is put forward which incurs no error in mean velocity measurement when the beam is directed through the point of maximum velocity. Assuming correct alignment of the beam, errors due to profile asymmetry are, therefore, related to the degree of departure of the asymmetry from this acceptable form.     

Estimation of regurgitant volume and orifice in aorticregurgitation combining CW Doppler and parameter estimation in aWindkessel-like model

A method for noninvasive estimation of regurgitant orifice and volume in aortic regurgitation is proposed and tested in anesthetized open chested pigs. The method can be used with noninvasive measurement of regurgitant jet velocity with continuous wave ultrasound Doppler measurements together with cuff measurements of systolic and diastolic systemic pressure in the arm. These measurements are then used for parameter estimation in a Windkessel-like model which include the regurgitant orifice as a parameter. The aortic volume compliance and the peripheral resistance are also included as parameters measurements in the open chest pigs are used. Electromagnetic flow measurements in the ascending aorta and pulmonary artery are used for control, and a correlation between regurgitant volume obtained from parameter estimation and electromagnetic flow measurements of 0.95 over a range from 2.1 to 17.8 mL is obtained.     

Induced-current effects on microwave backscatter

Microwave measurements have been made with a coherent radar in a wind-wave tank to determine the effect of induced current on backscatter. Perturbations were introduced into the wave structure by inducing a current in the water that flowed either with or against the wind. The effect of current on radar cross section was slight; the effect on the Doppler was much more pronounced. It was found that the wave components responsible for radar backscatter are predominantly free waves (that is, waves which travel at the dispersion velocity) rather than waves which are parasitic (or locked) to the dominant waves.     

Ultrafast Doppler imaging of blood flow dynamics in the myocardium

Imaging intramyocardial vascular flows in real-time could strongly help to achieve better diagnostic of cardiovascular diseases. To date, no standard imaging modality allows describing accurately myocardial blood flow dynamics with good spatial and temporal resolution. We recently introduced a novel ultrasonic Doppler imaging technique based on compounded plane waves transmissions at ultrafast frame rate. The high sensitivity of this ultrafast Doppler technique permits to image the intramyocardial blood flow and its dynamics. A dedicated demodulation-filtering process is implemented to compensate for the large tissue velocity of the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. A signed power Doppler processing provides the discrimination between arterial and venous flows. Experiments were performed in vivo in a large animal open chest model ( N = 5 sheep) using a conventional ultrasonic probe placed at the surface of the heart. Results show the capability of the technique to image intramyocardial vascular flows in normal physiological conditions with good spatial (200 μm) and temporal resolution (10 ms). Flow dynamics over the cardiac cycle were investigated and the imaging method demonstrated a phase opposition of flow waveforms between arterial and venous flows. Finally, ultrafast Doppler combined with tissue motion compensation was found able to reveal vascular flow disruption in ischemic regions during occlusion of the main diagonal coronary artery.     

一种弹载SAR相位域调制欺骗干扰方法

从相位域假目标调制的角度提出了一种针对弹载合成孔径雷达的欺骗干扰信号产生方法。首先,干扰机根据侦察系统提供的弹载合成孔径雷达平台参数,将假目标模板按散射单元划分距离向单元,计算距离向单元内各散射单元对应的多普勒频率、多普勒频率的和函数、相位及幅度信息;其次,对截获的弹载合成孔径雷达信号按距离单元进行相位延时调整、假目标相位调制;然后,利用假目标模板获取的多普勒信号幅度信息进行雷达散射截面重建;最后,对各距离单元干扰信号求和后转发。仿真结果表明:由该方法产生的干扰信号能够形成期望的假目标,是一种有效的干扰方法。     

基于拉曼激光雷达的南京上空大气温度廓线观测

介绍了综合使用瑞利、拉曼、米散射三种技术的激光雷达的基本结构与拉曼散射温度反演原理。对其中的拉曼回波信号进行了背景噪声扣除、滑动平均和小波变换降噪,在此基础上分析了气溶胶对拉曼激光雷达温度廓线反演的影响。利用上述激光雷达信号处理方法对南京上空的温度廓线进行观测,反演了2010年11月19日18时53分至19时35分连续观测的数据。反演的温度廓线表明,观测开始至观测结束,5.5 km处的温度变化为2 K的波动变化;对2010年11月整月的观测数据进行分析处理,得到11月份上中下三旬的平均温度廓线。在10 km高度处,下旬温度比上旬温度低4 K,随着入冬的进程,低空段的大气温度递减率有明显增大的趋势;11月的月平均温度在5~10 km处低于模式值4 K左右,并且两者几乎平行,说明11月份5~10 km各高度温度比模式均低4 K左右。     

Laboratory study of polarized microwave scattering by surface wavesat grazing incidence: the influence of long waves

Laboratory measurements of microwave scattering at grazing incidence from superposed wind and weakly nonlinear (AK<0.024) regular long waves are presented. This study is an extension of previous measurements with wind waves only. A dual polarized (VV, HH) coherent pulsed Ku-band (14 GHz) scatterometer with temporal resolution of 3 ns was used to obtain Doppler spectra and the absolute cross section of scattered signals for grazing angles from 6° to 25° and winds in the range 2-12 m/s. A wire wave-gauge array was used to measure the wind-wave field. Measurements of the frequency and amplitude modulation of the scattered signal due to the long waves showed that the data separated into two groups. The first grouping corresponded to HH scattering in the upwind direction and was clearly associated with scattering from the dominant gravity wind-waves on the crests of the long waves. In this case, the wind speed clearly influences the frequency modulation due to long waves. The second grouping corresponded to scattering in the downwind direction and was consistent with Bragg scattering from higher frequency waves. In this case the frequency modulation due to orbital velocity of the long waves was found to be weakly dependent on wind speed over the range of parameters studied. This classification of the electromagnetic scattering was consistent with comparisons of direct and Doppler measurements of the kinematics of the surface wave field     

Pulsed Doppler signal processing for use in mice: design and evaluation

We have developed and evaluated a high-frequency, real-time pulsed Doppler and physiological signal acquisition and analysis system specifically for use in mice. The system was designed to provide sampling rates up to 125 kilosamples/s (ksps) with software controlled data acquisition and analysis in real-time. Complex fast Fourier transforms are performed every 0.1 ms (or longer up to 10 ms) to provide 0.1-ms time resolution and using 64-1024 sample segments of the Doppler audio signals resulting in frequency resolution ranging from 122-1953 Hz. The system was evaluated by its response to frequency swept signals with slopes (accelerations) and magnitudes (velocities) comparable to actual blood velocity signals in mice. Signals up to a maximum frequency of 125 kHz and a maximum acceleration of 20 MHz/s were processed and displayed. This corresponds to a maximum velocity of 480 (960) cm/s and a maximum acceleration of 750 (1500) m/s2 when Doppler shifts are measured with a 20- (10-) MHz probe, thereby allowing us to measure high stenotic jet velocities. The directional transitions of the spectrogram across zero frequency and across Nyquist frequency (sampling rate/2) were smooth with no discernible artifacts. Signals with period as low as 2 ms were processed and displayed at sweep speed that is ten times that in clinical Doppler systems, so that measurements of small temporal events can be made with precision. Thus, the new system can measure higher blood velocities with higher spatial and temporal resolution than is possible using clinical Doppler systems adapted for use in mice.     

Models of radar imaging of the ocean surface waves

A number of models which would explain ocean wave imagery taken with a synthetic aperture imaging radar are analyzed analytically and numerically. Actual radar imagery is used to support some conclusions. The models considered correspond to three sources of radar backscatter cross section modulation:tilt modulation, roughness variation, and the wave orbital velocity. The effect of the temporal changes of the surface structure, parametric interactions, and the resulting distortions are discussed.     

云雾中飞机尾流的环量估计

结合典型的稳定段尾流空气动力学模型和电磁散射模型,仿真分析了尾流的毫米波雷达多普勒特性;进而利用网格映射的方法,提出了一种基于双部毫米波雷达探测的尾流速度场反演和环量估计技术。结果表明,双部多普勒雷达可有效估计垂直于航向截面上的尾流二维速度场特征,据此可以得到航空安全领域非常关注的尾流环量特征。     

The effect of geometrical spectral broadening on the estimation ofmean blood velocity using wide and narrow ultrasound beams

If an ultrasound beam uniformly insonates the cross section of a blood vessel then the Doppler signal can be analyzed to give a frequency proportional to the spatial mean blood velocity. This is also possible if the beam can be thought of as negligibly thin compared to the blood vessel radius, centrally placed, and the blood velocity profile is axisymmetric and monotonic, although the analysis takes a different form. The immunity of these mean velocity estimators to broadening of the ideal frequency spectrum is studied. If the broadening of a frequency component is such that its mean frequency, weighted by intensity, is unchanged then the analysis with a uniformly insonating beam still leads to the correct mean velocity. In contrast, for any such broadening, the analysis if the beam is negligibly thin produces an underestimate of the mean velocity. Error expressions are derived for idealized cases and some practical results given     

Optimal System Design for an Implantable CW Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeter

A totally implantable telemetry system utilizing custom micropower monolithic integrated circuits has been developed to measure instantaneous pulsatile blood flow in the major arteries of animals. The device utilizes the Doppler effect at ultrasonic frequencies to achieve a flowmeter possessing small size and weight, low power consumption, inherent accuracy, and long-term stability. The integrated circuit electronics package occupies a volume of 3.8 cc and requires a power consumption of 10 mW from a single 135 volt mercury cell. The volume of the entire implantable flowmeter package is less than 36 cc. As a micro-miniature radio-telemetry system, the flow-meter can be totally implanted within the body, thereby eliminating the need for wires penetrating the skin, a serious problem with "back-pack" flowmeters due to danger of infection. The implantable flow-meter system provides a new and necessary tool for accurate quantitative measurements in the study of cardiovascular disease. It has been used in the study of transplanted heart rejection to monitor blood velocity in the major arteries of doB     

Fluorescence d’une fibre optique en silice dopée au néodyme

Induced-emission cross section for neodymium doped optical fiber are measured from temporal and spectral studies of spontaneous fluorescence. Induced-emission cross section values are 1.5 to 2.5 10^-20 cm² according to fibers and fluorescence bands. From a semi-classical theory of absorption-emission process in the fiber we calculate the optical gain and justifie the use of the Füchtbauer-Ladenburg relation for fibers.     

Laser Doppler Measurements of Localized Pulsatile Fluid Velocity

An optical Doppler velocimeter utilizing optical heterodyning techniques was used to measure radial velocity profiles of pulsatile flow in a cardiovascular circulation model. The light source was a single-mode frequency-stabilized He-Ne CW laser (6328 ?, 0.1 mW). The laser beam was focused to a 30-?m in diameter spot in the flow stream. Polystyrene spheres 0.73 ?m in diameter, suspended in distilled water, were used as light scatterers. The optical signal beam contained Doppler-shifted scattered light. The reference beam was split from the source beam in one configuration; in a second configuration an acoustical frequency modulator was installed in the reference beam pathway as part of a directional flow measurement system. The circulation model consisted of an artificial heart, a Windkessel model, a peripheral resistance, a capillary model, a reservoir, and an optical glass window section. The flow test section was positioned by a three-dimensional finely adjustable holder. From 10 to 34 point measurements were obtained to plot one velocity profile, which covered 95 percent of the tube diameter.     

基于单固体F-P标准具的双频率多普勒激光雷达研究

提出了基于单固体Fabry-Perot（F-P）标准具的双频率多普勒激光雷达技术。介绍了系统结构,并分析了系统的风场探测原理。根据探测指标要求,对系统各单元参数,特别是F-P标准具参数进行了详细的优化设计。利用得到的优化参数对雷达系统的探测性能进行了仿真。仿真结果表明:采用100 mm口径的望远镜和脉冲能量50 J、重复频率6 kHz的半导体激光器,在发射激光仰角60、距离分辨率60 m和脉冲累计时间1 min的情况下,晴天时,系统在3 km高度处的径向风速误差小于0.75 m/s;有薄雾时,系统在1.5 km高度处的径向风速误差小于0.58 m/s。在发射激光仰角8、距离分辨率60 m和脉冲累积时间10 s的情况下,不同的能见度天气时,系统在4 km处的径向风速误差都小于1 m/s。