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1.
Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) is a popular medicinal plant distributed widely in North America. The rhizome, rootlets, and root hairs produce medicinally
active alkaloids. Berberine, one of the Hydrastis alkaloids, has shown antifungal activity. The influence of a combination of the major Hydrastis alkaloids on the plant rhizosphere fungal ecology has not been investigated. A bioassay was developed to study the effect
of goldenseal isoquinoline alkaloids on three Fusarium isolates, including the two species isolated from Hydrastis rhizosphere. The findings suggest that the Hydrastis root extract influences macroconidia germination, but that only the combined alkaloids—berberine, canadine, and hydrastine—appear
to synergistically stimulate production of the mycotoxin zearalenone in the Fusarium oxysporum isolate. The Hydrastis root rhizosphere effect provided a selective advantage to the Fusarium isolates closely associated with the root tissue in comparison with the Fusarium isolate that had never been exposed to Hydrastis. 相似文献
2.
J.-F. Butaud P. Raharivelomanana J.-P. Bianchini E. M. Gaydou 《Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society》2008,85(4):353-356
The sandalwood kernels of Santalum insulare (Santalaceae) collected in French Polynesia give seed oils containing significant amounts of ximenynic acid, E-11-octadecen-9-oic acid (64–86%). Fatty acid (FA) identifications were performed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) of FA methyl esters. Among the other main eight identified fatty acids, oleic acid was found at a 7–28% level. The
content in stearolic acid, octadec-9-ynoic acid, was low (0.7–3.0%). An inverse relationship was demonstrated between ximenynic
acid and oleic acid using 20 seed oils. Results obtained have been compared to other previously published data on species
belonging to the Santalum genus, using multivariate statistical analysis. The relative FA S. insulare composition, rich in ximenynic acid is in the same order of those given for S. album or S. obtusifolium. The other compared species (S. acuminatum, S. lanceolatum, S. spicatum and S. murrayanum) are richer in oleic acid (40–59%) with some little differences in linolenic content. 相似文献
3.
Trail pheromones mediate communication among western subterranean termites, Reticulitermes hesperus Banks. Repetitive passages of ≥28 termites were required to establish a pheromone trail and trails needed to be reinforced
because they lasted <48 hr. The minimal threshold concentration for inducing responses from termite workers and secondary
reproductives was between 0.01 and 0.1 fg/cm of (3Z,6Z,8E)-dodecatrien-1-ol (henceforth, dodecatrienol). Workers showed optimal trail-following behavior to dodecatrienol at a concentration
of 10 fg/cm. Trails with concentrations >10 pg/cm were repellent to workers. Workers did not detect pheromone gradients, responding
equally to increasing or decreasing gradients of dodecatrienol, and termite workers were not able to differentiate between
different concentrations of dodecatrienol. Termites preferred dodecatrienol trails to 2-phenoxyethanol trails. Antennae played
a key role in trail pheromone perception. Dodecatrienol acted as an arrestant for worker termites (10 fg/cm2) and male alates (5 ng/cm2), whereas sternal gland extracts from females attracted male alates. Workers and alates, upon contact with filter paper disks
treated with higher doses (10 fg/cm2 and 5 ng/cm2, respectively) of dodecatrienol, were highly excited (increased antennation and palpation) and repeatedly returned to the
treated disks. Dodecatrienol did not act as a phagostimulant when offered on a paper towel disk. Reticulitermes hesperus is highly responsive to dodecatrienol, and it may play an important role in orientation of workers and alates. 相似文献
4.
Perception of the female sex pheromone in Utetheisa ornatrix (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) is responsible for induction and adjustment of calling by females and the collective phenomenon
termed “female pheromonal chorusing”. We found five olfactory-active compounds in the U. ornatrix female gland. When females were exposed to the entire pheromone or to two of its (synthetically prepared) components, (Z,Z,Z)-3,6,9-eicosatriene and (Z,Z,Z)-3,6,9-heneicosatriene, they were more likely to call during a given night, begin calling earlier, and briefly increase signal
frequency with which they extrude their abdomen, an observable indication of calling in this species. Some females even initiated
calling during photophase when exposed to the pheromone components. In general, female U. ornatrix are more sensitive to the complete blend of pheromone than to its individual compounds. We also tested the hypotheses: 1)
that abdominal extrusion per se increases the rate of pheromone release; and 2) that greater abdominal pumping rhythm increases pheromone release rate. Contrary
to our expectations: 1) females did not respond more strongly to a pulsed pheromone stimulus than to the constant release
of pheromone at the same average release rate; and 2) we did not find a relationship between the frequency of abdominal pumping
and pheromone release rate. Possible explanations for these unexpected findings are discussed. 相似文献
5.
Moraes MC Millar JG Laumann RA Sujii ER Pires CS Borges M 《Journal of chemical ecology》2005,31(6):1415-1427
Olfactometer bioassays showed that odors from mature Thyanta perditor males attracted females but not males. Furthermore, odors from females did not attract either sex, indicating that like other phytophagous pentatomid bugs, the males produce a sex pheromone. Attraction appeared to peak in late afternoon to evening. The headspace volatiles collected from male and female T. perditor were analyzed by GC-MS and HPLC. A male-specific compound, methyl (2E,4Z,6Z)-decatrienoate (2E,4Z,6Z-10:COOMe), was identified along with a number of other compounds found in extracts from both sexes. Bioassays carried out with 2E,4Z,6Z-10:COOMe showed it was as attractive to females as the crude extract of male volatiles, suggesting that the male-produced sex pheromone consists of 2E,4Z,6Z-10:COOMe as a single component. Consecutive volatiles collections from males showed that 2E,4Z,6Z-10:COOMe began appearing in extracts from males about 9 d after the final molt, as the males became sexually mature. 相似文献
6.
Ralphs MH Creamer R Baucom D Gardner DR Welsh SL Graham JD Hart C Cook D Stegelmeier BL 《Journal of chemical ecology》2008,34(1):32-38
Locoweeds (Astragalus and Oxytropis spp. that contain the toxic alkaloid swainsonine) cause widespread poisoning of livestock on western rangelands. There are
354 species of Astragalus and 22 species of Oxytropis in the US and Canada. Recently, a fungal endophyte, Embellisia spp., was isolated from Astragalus and Oxytropis spp. and shown to produce swainsonine. We conducted a survey of the major locoweeds from areas where locoweed poisoning has
occurred to verify the presence of the endophyte and to relate endophyte infection with swainsonine concentrations. Species
found to contain the fungal endophyte and produce substantial amounts of swainsonine were A. wootoni, A. pubentissimus, A. mollissimus, A. lentiginosus, and O. sericea. Astragalus species generally had higher concentrations of swainsonine than Oxytropis. Swainsonine was not detected in A. alpinus, A. cibarius, A. coltonii, A. filipes, or O. campestris. The endophyte could not be cultured from A. mollissimus var. thompsonii or A. amphioxys, but was detected by polymerase chain reaction, and only 30% of these samples contained trace levels of swainsonine. Further
research is necessary to determine if the endophyte is able to colonize these and other species of Astragalus and Oxytropis and determine environmental influences on its growth and synthesis of swainsonine. 相似文献
7.
Ya-Jia Liu David Hall Jerry Cross Dudley Farman Lakmali Amarawardana Qing-Ran Liu Xiong-Kui He 《Journal of chemical ecology》2009,35(6):715-723
The sex pheromone of the chrysanthemum gall midge, Rhopalomyia longicauda (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), the most important insect pest in commercial plantations of chrysanthemum, Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel., in China, was identified, synthesized, and field-tested. Volatile chemicals from virgin females and males were collected
on Porapak in China and sent to the United Kingdom for analysis. Coupled gas chromatographic–electroantennographic detection
(GC-EAG) analysis of volatile collections from females revealed two compounds that elicited responses from antennae of males.
These compounds were not present in collections from males. The major EAG-active compound was identified as 2-butyroxy-8-heptadecene
by gas chromatographic (GC) retention indices, mass spectra, in both electron impact and chemical ionization modes, hydrogenation,
epoxidation, and derivatization with dimethyldisulfide. The lesser EAG-active compound was identified as the corresponding
alcohol. The ratio of butyrate to alcohol in the collections was 1:0.26. Racemic (Z)-8-heptadecen-2-ol and the corresponding butyrate ester were synthesized from (Z)-7-hexadecenyl acetate, and the synthetic compounds found to have identical GC retention indices and mass spectra to those
of the natural, female-specific components. Analysis of the volatile collections on an enantioselective cyclodextrin GC column
showed the natural pheromone contained (2S,8Z)-2-butyroxy-8-heptadecene. Field tests showed that rubber septa containing racemic (Z)-2-butyroxy-8-heptadecene were attractive to R. longicauda males. The (naturally occurring) S-enantiomer was equally as attractive as the racemate, while the R-enantiomer was not attractive to males, and did not inhibit the activity of the S-enantiomer. The attractiveness of the butyrate was significantly reduced by the presence of even small amounts of the corresponding
alcohol. 相似文献
8.
Zhang JX Liu D Sun L Wei R Zhang G Wu H Zhang H Zhao C 《Journal of chemical ecology》2008,34(3):398-407
With a combination of dichloromethane extraction and analysis by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), we found 39
compounds (corresponding to 38 GC peaks) in the anogenital gland secretion (AGS) of captive adult giant pandas, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, during the non-mating season. In addition to indole, squalene, and some of the straight-chain fatty acids that had been
characterized previously from the AGS of giant pandas, we identified several new compounds such as decenal, two isomers of
decadienal, phenylacetic acid, 5-methylhydantoin, hydroquinone, phenylpropanoic acid, and erucic acid. Quantitative comparison
of the relative abundances of the 20 main GC peaks revealed that 5-methylhydantoin, indole, and erucic acid are putative female
pheromones, whereas squalene and hydroquinone are putative male pheromones. In addition to the presence of a few individual-specific
compounds, the relative abundances of most of the 21 constituents varied more among individuals than within individuals. This
suggests that individual identity might be coded in both digital and analog form. The chemical composition of different AGS
samples from the same pandas consistently displayed a minimum cluster distance, much smaller than that between samples from
different individuals in a hierarchical linkage cluster (average linkage) dendrogram. Our results indicate that the AGS might
contain an “odor fingerprint.” Although putative sex pheromones such as squalene and erucic acid should be assessed further
by bioassay, our study suggests that synthetic chemosignals might be useful in modulating the behavior and physiology of giant
pandas. 相似文献
9.
E-2-ethyl-2-hexen-1-ol (1), mellein (4), and 4-hydroxymellein (5) were identified as the major volatile compounds in the head and/or thorax of Camponotus quadrisectus. Neither 1 nor 5 have been previously detected in insects. Also identified were small amounts of m-cresol (2) and 6-methyl salicylic acid (3). E-2-ethylhexenal (6) and small amounts of 3 were identified in heads of Camponotus irritibilis from Kuala Belalong, Brunei. Compounds 2–4 occur in other Bornean camponotines with hypertrophied mandibular glands, and 4 is widespread in the tribe. The possibility of semiochemical parsimony (multiple functions) for these mandibular gland compounds
is reviewed in the context of existing data on mandibular gland products of other camponotines, reported biological activities
of the compounds, and secondary loss of metapleural glands in this ant group. 相似文献
10.
Crossing experiments between two closely related moths, Ostrinia scapulalis and O. zealis, were conducted to gain insight into the genetic basis of the divergence of female sex pheromones. The sex pheromone of O. scapulalis comprises (E)-11- and (Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetates (E11 and Z11), and distinct genetic variation is found in the blend of components. This variation is largely controlled by a single autosomal locus with two alleles, AE(sca) and AZ(sca). E-type (AE(sca)AE(sca)) females produce a pheromone with amean E11:Z11 ratio of 99:1, whereas Z-type (AZ(sca)AZ(sca)) and I-type (AE(sca)AZ(sca)) females produce a pheromone with a mean of 3:97 and 64:36, respectively. O. zealis is distinctive in that it has a third pheromone component, (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9), in addition to E11 and Z11, and the typical blend ratio is 60:35:5 (Z9:E11:Z11). Our study revealed that Z9 production in O. zealis is mainly regulated by an autosomal recessive gene phr(zea), which is suggested to be involved in the chain-shortening of a pheromone precursor fatty acid, and linked to AE(zea), a gene corresponding to AE(sca) in O. scapulalis. A few mutations in a gene involved in pheromone production could explain the dramatic shift between a two-component pheromone communication system in O. scapulalis and a three-component system in O. zealis. 相似文献
11.
The pinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the most important invasive species in pine forests of Asia, is transported to new pine hosts by beetles of the genus Monochamus. Third-stage dispersal juveniles (JIII) aggregate in pupal chambers around the vector as it matures. We demonstrated that the ratio of three terpenes (α-pinene,
β-pinene, and longifolene at 1:2.7:1.1) released by larval Monochamus alternatus strongly attract JIII, whereas the different ratio (1:0.1:0.01) of these three terpenes found in healthy xylem of Pinus massoniana attracts only the propagative stage (Jn) of the nematode. We suggest that the volatiles produced by the host plants could be the basis of a chemoecological relationship
between plant parasitic nematodes and their vector insects. Capture of JIII with terpene-baited trap tubes deployed for 2 hr in the field was demonstrated. This technique may lead to the development
of rapid sampling methodologies for use at either ports-of-entry or in the field. 相似文献
12.
Emerson S. Lacey Jocelyn G. Millar Jardel A. Moreira Lawrence M. Hanks 《Journal of chemical ecology》2009,35(6):733-740
Adults of both sexes of the cerambycid beetles Xylotrechus colonus (F.) and Sarosesthes fulminans (F.) were attracted to odors produced by male conspecifics in olfactometer bioassays. Analyses of headspace volatiles from
adults revealed that male X. colonus produced a blend of (R)- and (S)-3-hydroxyhexan-2-one and (2 S,3 S)- and (2R,3R)-2,3-hexanediol, whereas male S. fulminans produced (R)-3-hydroxyhexan-2-one and (2 S,3R)-2,3-hexanediol. All of these compounds were absent in the headspace of females. Two field bioassays were conducted to confirm
the biological activity of the synthesized pheromones: (1) enantiomerically enriched pheromone components were tested singly
and in species-specific blends and (2) four-component mixture of racemic 3-hydroxyhexan-2-one plus racemic 2-hydroxyhexan-3-one
and the four-component blend of the stereoisomers of 2,3-hexanediols were tested separately and as a combined eight-component
blend. In these experiments, adult male and female X. colonus were captured in greatest numbers in traps baited with the reconstructed blend of components produced by males, although
significant numbers were also captured in traps baited with (R)-3-hydroxyhexan-2-one alone or in blends with other compounds. Too few adult S. fulminans were captured for a statistical comparison among treatments, but all were caught in traps baited with lures containing (R)-3-hydroxyhexan-2-one. In addition to these two species, adults of two other species of cerambycid beetles, for which pheromones
had previously been identified, were caught: Neoclytus a. acuminatus (F.) and its congener Neoclytus m. mucronatus (F.). Cross-attraction of beetles to pheromone blends of other species, and to individual pheromone components that are shared
by two or more sympatric species, may facilitate location of larval hosts by species that compete for the same host species. 相似文献
13.
Chemical communication plays an important role in mediating social interactions of many taxa, particularly arthropods. Many individuals communicate information about their reproductive status to potential mates through distance and/or contact pheromones, an ability that may be advantageous to both signalers and receivers. In this paper, we describe tests of two hypotheses on the role of distance communication in the reproductive behaviors of crayfish (Orconectes quinebaugensis). First, we hypothesized that male crayfish would show stronger attraction towards virgin females (females with no viable sperm) than towards non-virgin females because of the fitness costs (to males) associated with sperm competition. Second, we hypothesized that female crayfish should show differential responses to mature male signals depending on their own sexual history: virgin females should be more strongly attracted to male signals than should non-virgin females because they must mate at least once to be able to fertilize eggs in the spring. Data from two Y-maze experiments yielded support for both hypotheses: males were attracted to signals from virgin females, but not to signals from non-virgins. Likewise, virgin females were attracted to signals from males, but non-virgin females were not. We discuss our data in the context of the potential costs and benefits of mate searching and suggest that distance chemical communication of sexual status may be particularly advantageous when the costs of mate searching are high. 相似文献
14.
Contact kairomones from adult southern green stink bugs, Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) that elicit foraging behavior of the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) were investigated in laboratory experiments. Chemical residues from tarsi and scutella of N. viridula induced foraging by gravid female T. basalis. Residues from body parts of female N. viridula elicited stronger responses than those from the corresponding body parts of males. Deproteinized tarsi still elicited searching
responses from wasps, indicating that the kairomone was not proteinaceous. Hexane extracts of host cuticular lipids induced
searching responses from T. basalis, with a strong preference for extracts from female hosts. Extracts consisted primarily of linear alkanes from nC19 to nC34, with quantitative and qualitative differences between the sexes. Extracts of female N. viridula contained more nC23, nC24, and nC25 than the corresponding extracts from males, whereas nC19 was detected only in extracts from males. Direct-contact solid phase microextraction (DC-SPME) of N. viridula cuticle and of residues left by adult bugs walking on a glass plate confirmed gender-specific differences in nC19. Trissolcus basalis females responded weakly to a reconstructed blend of the straight-chain hydrocarbons, suggesting that minor components other
than linear alkanes must be part of the kairomone. Addition of nC19 to hexane extracts of female N. viridula significantly reduced the wasps’ arrestment responses, similar to wasps’ responses to hexane extracts of male hosts. Overall,
our results suggest that a contact kairomone that elicits foraging by T. basalis females is present in the cuticular lipids of N. viridula, and that the presence or absence of nC19 allows T. basalis females to distinguish between residues left by male or female hosts. The ecological significance of these results in the
host location behavior of scelionid egg parasitoids is discussed. 相似文献
15.
L. I. N. Ezemonye D. F. Ogeleka F. E. Okieimen 《Journal of surfactants and detergents》2007,10(4):301-308
The assessment of water and sediment quality from chemical pollutants in the Nigerian Niger Delta were conducted using bioindicators
(Desmoscaris tripsinosa and Palaemonetes africanus). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2004), No.218 direct sediment toxicity assessment was
employed. Shrimp were exposed to sediments treated with Neatex (liquid detergent) and Norust CR 486 (corrosion inhibitor)
at concentrations of 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg. Percentage mortality was measured as the ecological endpoint. Mean
% mortality and estimated lethal concentration LC50 values varied with species type, concentration and exposure duration.
Observed % mean mortality of the test organisms in both chemicals were significantly different from that of the control test
suggesting that mortality may be induced by the effect of the chemicals. LC50s were significantly different for both chemicals
at p < 0.05, t = 6.06 (fresh water) and p < 0.05, t = 12.34 (brackish). The values from this study are an indication that the chemicals have the potential to cause acute lethal
toxicity. It is a prediction of likely adverse effects on shrimp populations in benthic sediment of the Niger Delta ecological
zone. Consequently, there is a great need to protect some of the more sensitive invertebrates representing the major proportion
of the diet of many other species.
相似文献
F. E. OkieimenEmail: |
16.
Sutton R Bolton E Bartels-Hardege HD Eswards M Reish DJ Hardege JD 《Journal of chemical ecology》2005,31(8):1865-1876
Neanthes acuminata Ehlers (1868) is a monogamous coastal polychaete with male parental care and a high level of sexual selection. We measured the level of prezygotic isolation among allopatric populations of N. acuminata; from the East and West Coast of the USA, a population from Hawaii, and a laboratory culture originating from Los Angeles, CA. All populations were found to preferably mate with members of their own population. Individuals from populations from Atlantic vs. Pacific Ocean failed to pair and to mate, either during the 10 min or 48 hr experiments. Instead, individuals showed high levels of aggressive behavior. Experiments measuring the levels of interpopulation aggression, established that individuals can recognize and discriminate among different populations of N. acuminata on the basis of olfactory cues. Aggressive behavior was induced by exposure of animals to seawater “conditioned” by individuals from the other populations, thus demonstrating the role of olfaction in the detection of “home” populations. The aggressive display was stronger upon exposure to seawater conditioned with “unrelated” populations and especially between Pacific and Atlantic populations. 相似文献
17.
Mated female Heliothis virescens and H. subflexa were induced to produce sex pheromone during the photophase by injection of pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN). When injected with 1 pmol Hez-PBAN, the total amount of pheromone that could be extracted from glands of mated females during the photophase was similar to that extracted from virgin females in the scotophase. The PBAN-induced profile of pheromone components was compared between mated, PBAN-injected females and virgin females during spring and fall. Virgin females exhibited some differences in the relative composition of the pheromone blend between spring and fall, but no such temporal differences were detected in PBAN-injected, mated females. Because the temporal variation in pheromone blend composition was greater for virgin females than for PBAN-injected females, PBAN can be used to determine a females native pheromone phenotype. This procedure has the advantages that pheromone glands can be extracted during the photophase, from mated females that have already oviposited. 相似文献
18.
Tóth M Furlan L Xavier A Vuts J Toshova T Subchev M Szarukán I Yatsynin V 《Journal of chemical ecology》2008,34(1):107-111
While testing traps baited with a blend of geranyl octanoate and geranyl butanoate (pheromone components previously identified
for Agriotes lineatus, Coleoptera, Elateridae) in Portugal and Bulgaria, large numbers of the closely related Agriotes proximus were captured. In the literature, two different compounds, (E,E)-farnesyl acetate and neryl isovalerate had previously been identified as pheromone components of A. proximus. Subsequent field tests, conducted in several European countries, revealed that A. proximus was weakly attracted to geranyl butanoate on its own, while A. lineatus was weakly attracted to geranyl octanoate on its own. However, the largest catches for both species were observed with a
blend of both compounds. No A. proximus was caught in traps baited with the blend of (E,E)-farnesyl acetate and neryl isovalerate at any of the test sites. In electroantennographic studies, antennae of male A. proximus and A. lineatus both gave greater responses to geranyl butanoate than to geranyl octanoate, suggesting that the perception of these two compounds
was similar for both species. A 1:1 blend of geranyl octanoate and geranyl butanoate can be used as a bait in traps for the
detection and monitoring of both A. lineatus and A. proximus in many European countries. 相似文献
19.
Gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric analyses of the scent gland secretions of Siro duricorius and S. exilis (Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi, Sironidae) revealed a set of 24 components, comprising a series of saturated and unsaturated methyl ketones (C11–C15) and four naphthoquinones. Whereas the scent gland secretions of S. duricorius, collected in Austria, and S. exilis from USA were qualitatively nearly indistinguishable (with the exception of acetophenone that was specific to S. duricorius), they distinctly differed in their relative quantitative compositions: major components of the secretion of S. duricorius were 7-tridecen-2-one, tridecan-2-one, undecan-2-one, 1,4-naphthoquinone, 6-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (tentatively identified only), and 4-chloro-1,2-naphthoquinone. In contrast, in S. exilis a compound tentatively identified as 6-methyl-4-chloro-1,2-naphthoquinone was present in large amounts (in S. duricorius a trace component), whereas undecan-2-one only occurred in minor quantities. Secretion profiles of juveniles and adults (both sexes) of each species showed high correspondence.This is the first report on the chemistry of scent gland secretions of the opilionid suborder Cyphophthalmi. 4-Chloro-1,2-naphthoquinone was identified as a new exocrine product of arthropods, whereas 1,4-naphthoquinone and the tentatively identified 6-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone are known constituents of exocrine secretions from one species of palpatorid opilionids, Phalangium opilio. In contrast, all ketones identified were new for opilionid scent glands, although similar ketones are characteristic of scent gland secretions of palpatorid genera Leiobunum and Hadrobunus. With regard to the near-basic position of Cyphophthalmi in currently proposed phylogenetic trees of Opiliones, naphthoquinones and ketones from Siro may represent the condition ancestral to the (derived) naphthoquinone- and ketone-rich secretions in phalangid Palpatores. 相似文献
20.
The larvae of three races of Heliconius erato were fed various species of Passiflora containing varying levels of cyanoglucosides. The mortality rate of larvae and pupae rose when larvae were fed species of
Passiflora capable of releasing larger quantities of cyanide. When larvae were fed species of Passiflora with these properties, the resulting adult butterflies also released higher levels of cyanide. This may serve as a defense
mechanism. The compounds responsible for the release of cyanide were not evenly distributed throughout the adult butterfly’s
body. The thorax contained the highest concentration of cyanogenic substances, followed by the head, wings, and abdomen. The
younger tissues of Passiflora plants had higher levels of cyanide-releasing compounds than stems and mature leaves. Cyanogenic glycoside distribution within
the plants is consistent with optimal allocation theory. The levels of cyanide-releasing substances in plants varied depending
on the season. 相似文献