Who's afraid of John B. Watson? Comments on: Behavior: An introduction to comparative psychology.

Reviews the book, Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology by John B. Watson (Introduction by R. J. Herrnstein) (see record 1967-08039-000). This book, a reprint of the 1914 volume which was Watson's first book, disinters again from its mouldy wrappings the often harrassed spectre of John B. Watson's place in the history of North American psychology. Was he, as Gustav Bergmann (1956) has suggested, second only to Freud as "the most important figure in the history of psychological thought during the first half of the century?" Or was A. A. Roback (1937, 1964) closer to the truth in dismissing Watsonian Behaviorism as a "rah-rah technique" which "made a big noise" which was "not substantiated by deeds?" Or was Watson, as other writers have suggested, simply a footnote to Functionalism? Herrnstein, in his introduction, discusses Watson as the heir of Darwin, Sechenov, and Pavlov, and as the progenitor of Tolman, Hull, and Skinner. The fact of the matter is that Watson's contributions to psychology, however they may be assessed, were not in the field of animal behavior but in the field of methodology. Thorndike's Law of Effect continued to overshadow Watson's frequency principle in learning, Pavlov did more with the reflex in terms of both research and theory, and Lashley began a tradition of revolutionary explorations of the animal nervous system. It is not without good reason that Boring (1950) discusses Watson in a section on Behaviorism '(with the ism)" rather than in sections on Animal Psychology where Romanes, Loeb, Morgan, and Yerkes are included. Indeed, it is to the "history and systems" books one must turn to find consistent reference to Behavior. It would appear that if Behavior is, in fact, a classic, it is a classic in the field of psychological theory and methodology, not in the field of animal behavior or comparative psychology. Perhaps it was this point which Herrnstein was making when he began the first sentence of his introduction with the words, "To find out what behaviorism was, consult this book," rather than with the words, "To find out what comparative psychology was, consult this book." Nevertheless, whether your interest is behaviorism, comparative psychology, or the history and growth of psychological thinking in North America, this book is worth consulting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A further note on ranking the important psychologists.

Responses of 246 American Psychological Association members (of 1,000 surveyed) ranked Freud, Skinner, Watson, Pavlov, and Hull, respectively, as having the greatest influence on 20th century psychology. Skinner, Rogers, Hebb, Piaget, and Harlow, respectively, were ranked as the 5 most influential contemporary contributors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of 1975: An extrapolation.

In 1975 "our motive in studying psychology will continue to be primarily the fact that we have cognitive needs… . The creativity excitement of today will be geometrically expanded… because even the creativity abstraction is itself an exciting abstraction." The "new realm of knowledge to which Freud above all, has led… . [and] the huge legacy of Ivan Pavlov and our Soviet colleagues" will be utilized. Outrageous hypotheses are desirable tools. Advances in 4 fields will "make major impacts upon psychology: genetics, neurophysiology, perception theory, and ecology… . It is perfectly plain that among all the behavioral sciences psychology is central." Major sections are: Prediction Models, Radar into the Future, The "Specious Present," Biological Vistas, Outrageous Hypotheses, and New Psychologies? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early behaviorism and verbal mediating responses.

Largely overlooked are many "earlier behavioristic or stimulus-response analyses of increasingly complex behavioral phenomena in part by means of concepts and principles involving mediating responses and stimuli… primarily but not exclusively, verbal mediating responses and stimuli… . Meyer, Watson, Hunter, Dashiell, Kantor, and others clearly anticipated the essential features of many more recent analyses." Watson's ideas and those of his contemporaries are discussed. Hull is regarded as "the transition" between the earlier and more recent concepts concerning verbal mediating responses. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2AD85G. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Readability of readers.

The Flesch count readability formula was applied to general readers in psychology intended to be used in combination with regular psychology tests. Results indicate that "… the books are of about the same degree of difficulty, all being difficult according to Flesch's standards… . Some of the most readable work was done by such writers as Kohler, Freud, Munn, Murphy, James McKeen Cattell and Lashley." Among the more difficult to read are Lewin, Pavlov, Carmichael, and Cruze. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Freud and Psychology.

Reviews the book, Freud and Psychology edited by S. G. M. Lee and Martin Herbert (see record 1971-29146-000). This volume presents twenty papers, an introduction and bibliographies on psychoanalysis. The papers are divided into seven sections which are headed "Psychoanalysis as Science: General Theoretical Considerations", "Psychoanalysis as Science: Methodological Considerations", "Freud's Genetic Theories: Infant Experience and Adult Behaviour", Psychosexual Development and Character Formation", "Defence Mechanisms", "Unconscious Motivation and Dreaming", and "Conclusions." The authors are psychologists and psychoanalysts of many persuasions who originally published these works between 1938 and 1966. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From the machine to the ghost within: Pavlov's transition from digestive physiology to conditional reflexes.

Pavlov's transition from research on digestive physiology to investigations of conditional reflexes involved related departures from 2 firmly established traditions in his laboratory. One was conceptual: The standardized line of investigation that Pavlov had applied fruitfully to the gastric and pancreatic glands proved inapplicable to the salivary glands, leading him to reevaluate his approach to "psychic secretion." The dynamics and nature of this reevaluation owed much to a 2nd departure, this one from a standard laboratory practice: Confronted with a conceptual problem that he recognized as psychological and, therefore, beyond his expertise, Pavlov recruited outside experts to help him resolve it, thus importing perspectives from contemporary psychology and psychiatry. The important role of insights from these 2 disciplines in the birth of research on conditional reflexes has been obscured by Pavlov's tale about this episode, a tale repeated uncritically by subsequent commentators. The intellectual terms of Pavlov's transition are evident in the phrase he chose to replace "psychic secretion": "uslovnyi refleks." This term is commonly translated into English as "conditioned reflex," but its original meaning for Pavlov is better translated as "conditional reflex." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cortical inhibition, figural aftereffect, and theory of personality.

"An attempt has been made in this paper to work out a dynamic theory to account for a number of experimental findings in the field of personality related to the concept of extraversion-introversion. Following Pavlov and Hull, a theory of cortical inhibition was developed to account for observed differences in behavior and a deduction from this principle was made by extending it to the perceptual field. It was predicted that hysterics (as a prototype of the extraverted personality type) would be differentiated from dysthymics (as a prototype of the introverted personality type) in the speed of arousal, strength, and length of persistence of figural aftereffects." Experimental results presented are in accord with the predictions. 46 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do responses evoke responses?

Psychologists know next to nothing about the way in which response-produced cues work. Earlier W. James, J. B. Watson, and M. F. Washburn and somewhat later Guthrie and Hull stressed the significance of "response-evoking properties of response-produced stimuli. The theory of response has been productive in stimulating research." Researches are cited involving an experimental paradigm permitting mediational interpretation. After presenting data in 12 figures and discussing it, the original question was again raised: "Do responses really evoke responses? It certainly looks as if sometimes they do. But often they do not, and when they do the effect is not always very impressive. Just like other stimuli, these cues apparently evoke responses to varying degrees, and then under specific and restricted conditions. As with any other scientific phenomenon, we now face the long process of identifying the variables and discovering the laws governing these processes." There is "little confidence that response-produced cues can bear all of the heavy theoretical burden the various theorists have given them." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Centenary of psychology: 1856-1956. Celebration at Washington University, St. Louis.

To mark a "convergent anniversary in the history of behavioral science—experimental psychology, clinical psychiatry, and psychoanalysis—a program under the title of "Psychology in Perspective—A Centenary Celebration: 1856-1956" was offered at Washington University, St. Louis, on September 28-29. Papers presented included "Psychology in Evolutionary Perspective" by Julian Huxley, "The Role of Consciousness in the Emergence of a Scientific Psychology" by Edwin G. Boring, "Organic Order from Mental Disorder" by Winfred Overholser, and "The Cultural Matrix of the Unconscious" by Saul Rosenzweig. Each of these papers is briefly summarized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Principles of Topological Psychology.

Reviews the book, Principles of Topological Psychology by Kurt Lewin (1969). This volume is a reprint of the translated first edition, originally published in 1936. This was Lewin's first complete exposition of topological psychology in English. A previous volume, A Dynamic Theory of Personality, was really a collection of papers. Of the Principles, Lewin's biographer Alfred Marrow has stated that "It was a comprehensive and systematic statement of Lewin's psychology." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symposium on relationships between religion and mental health: Discussion.

"To prepare to serve the personal needs of those who come to the pastor, psychology and clinical training have come into the curriculum of theological education… . It may be noted… that the deeper the psychotherapy the more like a religious conversion it becomes." Ostow finds that the most effective psychological controls in animal and human behavior "are exactly those which religion has developed with conspicuous success." Goodwin Watson notes that amoral therapy is a contradiction in terms, for every personal choice is a moral one. "Mental health is everybody's business. Every profession and every discipline of knowledge is responsible to give from its wisdom to the cause of healthy living on this planet. Psychology and psychiatry are making notable contributions. Religion and ethics too are disciplines needed on this frontier. From the ultimate concern of ethical religion we may ask faithful devotion to the human quest for wholeness." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abstracts/Abreges.

Presents a collection of abstracts from Canadian psychologists. Some of the topics include: "Painting as an aid in diagnosis and psychotherapy with a schizophrenic patient"; "Sorting deficit as a function of social class"; "Developmental changes in preference for complexity"; and "Error rate in behavioral research." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

E. G. B.: The early years and change of course.

Discusses why E. G. Boring left the laboratory to become the foremost historian of experimental psychology. The position of psychology in general and at Harvard in particular in the mid-1920s is examined, and it is concluded that Boring turned to history because he could not accept the current phenomenological or behavioristic approaches. The Zeitgeist had rendered Titchenerian structuralism obsolete so it was natural for Boring to devote himself to the history of the great sensory tradition. His inclusion of James and Freud among the "very great" psychologists showed his growth in appreciation of men outside the structuralist school. Boring's career exemplified the positive and negative interactions of eponyms with the Zeitgeist which he maintained was an essential factor in the progress of science. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A century after Freud's project: is a rapprochement between psychoanalysis and neurobiology at hand?

In his 1895 "Project for a Scientific Psychology" Freud attempted to construct a model of the human mind in terms of its underlying neurobiological mechanisms. In this endeavor "to furnish a psychology which shall be a natural science," Freud introduced the concepts that to this day serve as the theoretical foundation and scaffolding of psychoanalysis. As a result, however, of his ensuing disavowal of the Project, these speculations about the fundamental mechanisms that regulate affect, motivation, attention, and consciousness were relegated to the shadowy realm of "metapsychology." Nonetheless, Freud subsequently predicted that at some future date "we shall have to find a contact point with biology." It is argued that recent advances in the interdisciplinary study of emotion show that the central role played by regulatory structures and functions represents such a contact point, and that the time is right for a rapprochement between psychoanalysis and neuroscience. Current knowledge of the psychobiological mechanisms by which the right hemisphere processes social and emotional information at levels beneath conscious awareness, and by which the orbital prefrontal areas regulate affect, motivation, and bodily state, allows for a deeper understanding of the "psychic structure" described by psychoanalytic metapsychology. The dynamic properties and ontogenetic characteristics of this neurobiological system have important implications for both theoretical and clinical psychoanalysis.     

Of faculties, fallacies, and freedom: Dilemma and irony in the secularization of American psychology.

In The Principles of Psychology, William James (1890) articulated an influential, boundary-setting argument against faculty psychology, subsequently dubbed the Fallacy of the Faculty Psychology. This argument was reiterated in American psychology textbooks for the next several decades, arguably solidifying and simplifying American perceptions of the "old" faculty psychology and establishing belief in the superiority of the "New Psychology." When placed in the context of American theological and philosophical history, however, the New Psychology argument appears unoriginal, somewhat unfair, and deeply (and even tragically) ironic. Despite their best intentions, a fallacy did emerge in the old psychology as they sought psychological foundations for libertarian free will. For those members of the New Psychology still committed to free will, then, the Fallacy argument cut both ways--refuting the fallacy also meant tearing down a long-standing foundation for free will in American psychology. Offering no viable alternative to fill the moral void, the New Psychology appeared at times conflicted with its new deterministic identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The scope and standards of preparation in psychology for school counselors.

"This report asserts that psychology is central to the training of school counselors. The recommendations are designed to be guidelines for colleges of education, psychology departments, school systems, state departments of public instruction, the United States Office of Education and professional associations interested in the training and professional development of school counselors." The major sections are: Principles Relevant to Professional Preparation of the School Counselor and to His Effective Functioning, Content Areas in the Field of Psychology, Implications of the Report, and Pertinent Reports and Publications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Kosits (2004).

Reports two errors in the original article by Russell D. Kosits (History of Psychology, 2004, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 340-366). On p. 358, the first paragraph should read "Given this theological background, it is now possible to consider the New Psychology's Fallacy argument as deeply ironic and even tragic, particularly for William James, the argument's most influential articulator." Also, on p. 342, footnote 5, 6th line of the quotation, the word to should not be crossed out. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2004-21409-002.) In The Principles of Psychology, William James (1890) articulated an influential, boundary-setting argument against faculty psychology, subsequently dubbed the Fallacy of the Faculty Psychology. This argument was reiterated in American psychology textbooks for the next several decades, arguably solidifying and simplifying American perceptions of the "old" faculty psychology and establishing belief in the superiority of the "New Psychology." When placed in the context of American theological and philosophical history, however, the New Psychology argument appears unoriginal, somewhat unfair, and deeply (and even tragically) ironic. Despite their best intentions, a fallacy did emerge in the old psychology as they sought psychological foundations for libertarian free will. For those members of the New Psychology still committed to free will, then, the Fallacy argument cut both ways--refuting the fallacy also meant tearing down a long-standing foundation for free will in American psychology. Offering no viable alternative to fill the moral void, the New Psychology appeared at times conflicted with its new deterministic identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A course in human engineering.

"In 1955 we offered an undergraduate course, 'Experimental Industrial Psychology: Human Engineering.' " "As a text we selected Applied Experimental Psychology by Chapanis, Morgan, and Garner… ." A number of collateral reading sources were also utilized. "The course consisted of formal lectures on experimental methodology and the analysis of the relevant data of perceptual, learning, and physiological psychology." In the lectures "… emphasis was given in the lectures to various methodological techniques and controls as they might arise in applied research." An individual research project was required of each student. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

John Watson's paradoxical struggle to explain Freud.

John Watson was fascinated by the discoveries of psychoanalysis, but he rejected Freud's central concept of the unconscious as incompatible with behaviorism. After failing to explain psychoanalysis in terms of William James's concept of habit, Watson borrowed concepts from classical conditioning to explain Freud's discoveries. Watson's famous experiment with Little Albert is interpreted not only in the context of Pavlovian conditioning but also as a psychoanalytically inspired attempt to capture simplified analogues of adult phobic behavior, including the "transference" of emotion in an infant. Watson used his behavioristic concept of conditioned emotional responses to compete with Freud's concepts of displacement and the unconscious transference of emotion. Behind a mask of anti-Freudian bias, Watson surprisingly emerges as a psychologist who popularized Freud and pioneered the scientific appraisal of his ideas in the laboratory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)