Conditioning of verbal behavior as a function of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement.

This investigation evaluated the effects of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement on verbal conditioning. 61 male college students were reinforced with "good" for constructing sentences beginning with "I" or "we." Awareness and reinforcement motivation were assessed by an intensive postconditioning interview; need for social approval was measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale. Ss aware of a correct response-reinforcement contingency gave more "I" and "we" sentences than Unaware Ss, who showed no evidence of learning. Aware Ss motivated to receive reinforcement gave more "I" and "we" sentences than unmotivated Aware Ss. Contrary to expectation, need for approval was not related to Ss' reinforcement motivation or performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of anxiety on timed and untimed intelligence tests: Another look.

Administered the timed subtests of the WAIS to 48 undergraduates, only 1/2 of whom were aware of being timed. Ss were divided into 4 groups on the basis of their response to 15 worry items and 15 emotionality items taken from the Taylor MA scale. Low-worry Ss who were timed were superior to those who were untimed, whereas high-worry Ss tended to perform more poorly under the timed than the untimed condition. This Worry * Timing interaction closely parallels the "Anxiety" * Timing interactions found by others. Emotionality was not found to interact with the task variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety and the variability of word associates.

15 Ss who scored high on the Taylor MA scale and 15 Ss who scored low on the MA scale were given a word associate task. The highly anxious Ss tended to have sets of word associates lower in intersubject variability than the nonanxious Ss for stimulus words that elicited sets of word associates that are low in variability. Highly anxious Ss tended to give sets of word associates higher in intersubject variability than nonanxious Ss for stimulus words that elicited sets of word associates that are high in intersubject variability. A 2nd experiment reports data indicating a relationship between inter- and intrasubject variability of word associates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of operant level, interview with experimenter, and awareness upon verbal conditioning of chronic schizophrenics.

The present research attempted to (a) cross-validate N. D. Vestre's (1961, 1965) findings that medium-operant-level pronouns can be conditioned by "good" in a chronic schizophrenic population, (b) test whether or not high-operant-level pronouns can be conditioned by "good" in a chronic schizophrenic population, and (c) compare the conditionability of high-operant-level with that of medium-operant-level pronouns. It was hypothesized that schizophrenics would be more conditionable following a brief, friendly, personal interview than in the absence of any preconditioning interview. It was expected that awareness of the response-reinforcement contingency would favor conditioning. Both the operant level and interview with experimenter variables were investigated to see whether or not either differentially affected (a) the number of aware Ss and (b) the performance of aware Ss. "Good" functioned as a reinforcer for about 1/4 of the Ss in this study. The most important factor contributing to performance was awareness of the response-reinforcement contingency. Also, reinforcement tended to be more effective when Ss had no (instead of a S-min) preexperimental interview with E. Medium-operant-level pronouns were conditionable, and results of conditionability comparisons between high- and medium-preference pronouns depended upon how performance was measured. The negligible conditionability of high-preference pronouns was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental investigation on the effects of study and testing on student learning, retention, and ratings of instruction.

Measures of learning and retention were obtained in ongoing college-level classes along with student ratings of instruction. Analyses of the resulting data from 90 undergraduates show that Ss who studied for and took a test not only achieved more but also retained their learning longer than Ss who "studied in order to learn rather than for a test." However, ratings of the method of instruction were lower when Ss were tested. It is concluded that testing is valuable in the learning process, but teachers who test might expect less positive evaluations from their students. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The reward value of light increment under supranormal and subnormal arousal.

2 Experiments, with 80 male Wistar rats each, studied the effects of methamphetamine and pentobarbital, respectively, on the reward value of light increment, alternating training days with test days to separate learning effects from performance effects. During the 1st wk. of Exp. I, if injected on training days with saline solution, Ss trained with light increment performed more responses on test days than Ss trained without light increment but, if injected with methamphetamine, Ss trained with light increment performed fewer responses. During the 2nd wk., training with light increment became relatively more effective for those trained under 2 or 3 mg/kg of methamphetamine but less effective in Ss with 0 or 1 mg/kg. In Exp. II, the difference in number of test-day responses between Ss trained with and without light increment decreased when pentobarbital injections (5, 10, 15, or 20 mg/kg) were administered on training days. In both experiments, more responses were performed on training days by Ss receiving light increments, and the number of responses varied inversely with doses of drugs. Results complement previous findings and indicating that the reward value of an indifferent stimulus depends on an interaction between the arousal value of the stimulus and arousal level of the organism. (French summary) (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socialization, awareness, and electrodermal response to deception and self-disclosure.

Poorly socialized young adult males have been found to give smaller skin conductance responses (SCRs) to both physical and certain social (i.e., deception) stressors than their more highly socialized counterparts. This study with 30 male undergraduates examined whether these differences are dependent on S's awareness that his physiological responses are being recorded. 15 Ss attempted to deceive a polygraph examiner both before (unaware) and during (aware) a polygraph test. The 15 other Ss made truthful denials to the examiner's questions. All Ss were also asked biographical questions as part of an interview in the unaware condition. Under both aware and unaware conditions, high-socialization (Socialization scale of the California Psychological Inventory) Ss gave larger SCRs when deceiving than did low-socialization Ss. They also gave larger SCRs than low-socialization Ss when disclosing significant personal information but did not differ electrodermally when answering routine information questions. Awareness of physiological monitoring apparently does not mediate the finding that highly socialized Ss are markedly aroused and low socialization Ss little aroused by stress. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of interaction anticipation upon the extremity of trait ratings.

Examined the effect of interaction anticipation upon the perception of a future partner by 80 undergraduates. Experimental Ss were led to anticipate interaction with a stimulus person for either 3 or 30 min. Control Ss anticipated either no interaction or interaction with a different person. A process of "commitment reluctance" was discovered; experimental Ss made less extreme ratings across warm-cold dimensions of stimulus persons who had been described as either "warm" or "cold." These ratings were not, however, related to the length of the expected interaction. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of a subliminal food stimulus on verbal responses.

To what extent can subliminal stimulation be used to influence human behavior? This study involving 105 college freshmen attempts to isolate and study a few of the possible variables. "The experimental group saw a classroom movie with the word 'beef' superimposed in flashes of –1??? of a second every seven seconds; the control group just saw the movie. It was found that, compared to the control Ss, the experimental Ss (a) did not show increased verbal references to the stimulus word; (b) did not choose the stimulus object in a multiple choice situation (though sex differences were significant); but (c) did rate themselves significantly more hungry. It was also found that hours of food deprivation did not influence any of these relationships. 15 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing models of delayed sequence discrimination in pigeons: The advance key procedure.

In 2-event delayed sequence discrimination (DSD) training, one arrangement (temporal order) of 2 sample stimuli is the positive sequence and the remaining are the negative sequences for keypecking during a subsequent test stimulus. Three models of the DSD task were tested in 2 experiments with 8 White Carneaux pigeons. In Exp I Ss were allowed to terminate a trial by pecking the "advance key" during the sample stimuli or to let the test stimulus progress to the next trial. In the absence of a peck to the advance key, the trial continued to the completion of the test stimulus. In Exp II, Ss were forced to choose actively between advancing to the next trial and continuing through the current trial. Choice between the advance and continue keys was required with the occurrence of each of the successive sample stimuli and the test stimulus. Although the addition of forced choice resulted in more uniform effects, Ss were able to identify negative sample sequences with the occurrence of the 1st negative sample event in both experiments. Results support the prospective memory model but not the retrospective and hybrid models of temporal sequence recognition in the 2-event DSD task. (French abstract) (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An illusion of memory: False recognition influenced by unconscious perception.

The results of two experiments showed that an illusion of memory can be produced by unconscious perception. In a first phase of those experiments, a long list of words was presented for study. For the test of recognition memory given in the second phase of each experiment, presentation of a "context" word preceded that of most recognition test words. Ss were to judge whether or not the test words had been presented during the earlier study phase of the experiment. Effects of a context word on this recognition memory decision were opposite when Ss were aware vs. unaware of its presentation. For example, as compared to a condition in which no context word was presented, the probability of false recognition was increased when Ss were unaware but decreased when Ss were aware of the presentation of a context word that matched the recognition test word. Results are discussed in terms of unconscious influences on an attribution process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus condition self-selection by males in the interaction of locus of control and skill–chance situations.

Divided 218 undergraduates into 3 groups on the basis of their scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. Ss completed 2 achievement-type tests (the stimulus conditions), the 1st described as a test of skill, the 2nd as a test of chance. Ss then selected which type of test they would prefer for their 3rd test (stimulus condition self-selection). Thereafter, Ss had an opportunity to cheat by changing test answers. As predicted, Ss with an external locus of control were more likely to select a test of chance, whereas middles and internals were more likely to select a test of skill. Ss who selected a test of skill were more likely to cheat on a test of skill, whereas Ss who selected a test of chance were more likely to cheat on a test of chance. Results imply that behavior is both a function of self-selecting stimulus conditions and a function of personal factors. A distinction is drawn between the fundamental attributionist error (failure to consider stimulus condition self-selection) and the complementary fundamental attribution error. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting and identifying change: Additions versus deletions.

Examined the recognition of changes in the features of objects as a function of the nature of the change (i.e., additions, deletions, no change). In 2 experiments with a total of 148 undergraduates both detection (noticing whether the stimulus had changed) and identification (specifying the exact nature of the change) were assessed. In Exp I, Ss were not aware of subsequent detection and identification tasks while they initially viewed study slides of the to-be-changed stimuli. Results indicate that during subsequent presentation of the test stimuli, detection and identification were superior for additions. In Exp II, when Ss were aware of the subsequent recognition tasks while viewing each study slide, a detection advantage for deletions was obtained. Identification performance depended on a further factor, whether the features of a stimulus were codable. Only in codable stimuli were deletions easier to identify than additions. It is concluded that the differences between the 2 experiments in detecting and identifying additions vs deletions are consistent with A. Tversky's research that stresses the importance of specifying which representation (the study stimulus or the test stimulus) is the subject of comparison in the comparative judgment. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental study of unconscious influences: Ultrasound as a stimulus.

Used ultrasound as a stimulus to study its effects on behavior without S awareness. In Exp I evoked responses were elicited in 7 of 24 undergraduates by ultrasonic tones when Ss were reporting the presence of no stimulus. In Exp II with 20 male Ss, galvanic skin response conditioning to a compound stimulus made up of ultrasound and a red light resulted in shorter latencies to the compound stimulus than to the red light alone, during extinction. The differences did not appear among control Ss, supporting the occurrence of conditioning without awareness. In Exp III with 16 Ss, reaction-time performance was disrupted by providing ultrasound as an anticipatory cue for 1 of 2 lights over 150 trials and then reversing the ultrasound-light pairing. The ultrasound did not facilitate reaction time to the paired light during the 1st 150 trials, however. Results support learning without awareness, and the method is discussed as it might be extended to the study of unconscious influences and to clinical applications. (75 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preservation of cross-modal transfer of a rate discrimination in the bushbaby (Galogo senegalensis) with lesions of posterior neocortex.

Assessed the effect of lesions of posterior neocortex, using a test method that permits the demonstration of cross-modal transfer in intact bushbabies. Eight Ss were trained to discriminate light flashes of 18/sec and 3/sec in a go-no-go shock avoidance task. On completion of training, 4 Ss received lesions of posterior neocortex by aspiration. After 6 wks both lesion and intact Ss were returned to training in the visual discrimination. On the day following criterion performance on the visual test, auditory clicks of the same rate and contingencies were substituted and maintained to criterion. All 8 Ss demonstrated rapid transfer, and the lesion Ss were not retarded as compared with intact Ss. The cross-modal transfer of a specific rate discrimination was thus preserved in the absence of posterior intersensory neocortex. Results are discussed in terms of a hypothetical subcortical system capable of the amodal coding of simple stimulus dimensions. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Political orientation and the perceptual effects of an anticipated interaction.

"… to shed further light on the conditions favoring similarity and complementarity in social preference, an experiment was designed to investigate the perception of a political stimulus person… by Ss varying in the strength of their own political orientation… . measured… by… political [scales]… . Ss were led to anticipate interacting with one of the stimulus persons, while in a control condition… there would be no expectation of ever meeting the SP." The results indicated that, "people with a strong need to manipulate their social enviornment tend to devalue others with similar orientation when a competetive interaction is anticipated." 15 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sensitivity of paranoid patients to nonverbal cues.

To test the hypothesis of a special sensitivity on the part of paranoid patients to nonverbal cues, 2 videotapes were prepared for viewing by 24 hospitalized paranoid patients and 24 normal Ss. Half of each group saw a videotape of genuine stimuli, and half saw a videotape of simulated stimuli. The stimuli consisted of 40 6-sec shots of the same 4 persons on each tape. The faces of the persons were shown as they watched 2 lights serving as signals. For the genuine tape, electric shock was administered to the stimulus person at the cessation of a red light, but none after a white light; for the simulated tape, stimulus Ss posed their expectation. Viewing Ss judged whether, at each presentation, the stimulus person on the videotape expected or did not expect to receive an electric shock. Paranoid Ss demonstrated significantly higher accuracy than normals for genuine stimuli, while normal Ss were significantly more accurate than patients for simulated stimuli. Normal Ss were more accurate for simulated stimuli than they were for genuine stimuli, while patients were not. Data support the hypothesis. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of cognition and action: Mental processes inferred from speed-accuracy decomposition.

The interpretation of reaction time (RT) data requires strong assumptions about how Ss trade accuracy for speed of performance and about whether there is a discrete or continuous transmission of information from one component process to the next. Conventional RT and speed–accuracy trade-off procedures are not, by themselves, sufficiently powerful to test these assumptions. However, the deficiency can be remedied in part through a new speed–accuracy decomposition technique. The technique uses a hybrid mixture of (a) conventional RT trials in which Ss must process a given test stimulus with high accuracy and (b) peremptory response-signal trials in which Ss must make prompted guesses before stimulus processing has been finished. Data from this "titrated RT procedure" are then analyzed in terms of a parallel sophistication-guessing model, under which normal mental processes and guessing processes are assumed to race against each other in producing overt responses. With the model, the amount of partial information that Ss have accumulated about a test stimulus can be estimated at each intermediate moment during a reaction time trial. An application of speed–accuracy decomposition to 5 studies of word recognition illustrates the potential power of the technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selection and implementation of strategies in reasoning by analogy.

160 undergraduates were either trained to solve analogies using 1 of 3 different strategies or not given strategy training. Half of the Ss received analogies with integral attributes, and half received analogies with separable attributes. Ss were administered the Figure Analogies from the American Council on Education Psychological Examination for College Freshmen, the Abstract Reasoning from the Differential Aptitude Tests, and a questionnaire regarding their analogy-task performance. Findings indicate that (a) it was possible to train Ss to use various strategies for solving integral analogies; (b) Ss were not aware of the relative success or failure of the training; (c) Ss were aware of differences in the effectiveness of the alternative strategies, and their views were consistent with the actual differences; (d) scores on a figural series completion test were correlated with analogy solution latencies only for Ss who either were untrained or were trained to use the strategy they probably would have used if they had been untrained; (e) Ss' differential performance within content conditions on the analogy task was correlated in many instances with the Ss' metacognitive awareness of their success in strategy implementation; and (f) the preferred model used by untrained Ss was the most efficacious model and perceived to be the most efficacious one. Results show the importance of considering content variables, as well as task-execution and S variables, in the study of metacognitive and cognitive performance in information processing. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive modification of test anxious college students.

Assigned 15 male and 6 female test anxious 17-25 yr. olds (1 high school student and 20 undergraduates) to a group cognitive modification treatment, group desensitization, or a waiting list control group. The cognitive modification group combined an insight-oriented therapy which was designed to make test anxious Ss aware of their anxiety-engendering thoughts with a modified desensitization procedure which employed (a) coping imagery on how to handle anxiety and (b) self-instructional training to attend to the task and not ruminate about oneself. Results indicate that the cognitive modification group was most effective in significantly reducing test anxiety as assessed by (a) test performance obtained in an analog test situation, (b) self-reports given immediately after posttreatment and later at a 1-mo follow-up, and (c) GPA. Following treatment, the test anxious Ss in the cognitive modification group did not differ from a group of 10 low test anxious Ss, and in fact the cognitive modification Ss reported a significant increase in facilitative anxiety. (63 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)