A review: Fibre metal laminates,background, bonding types and applied test methods

During the past decades, increasing demand in aircraft industry for high-performance, lightweight structures have stimulated a strong trend towards the development of refined models for fibre-metal laminates (FMLs). Fibre metal laminates are hybrid composite materials built up from interlacing layers of thin metals and fibre reinforced adhesives. The most commercially available fibre metal laminates (FMLs) are ARALL (Aramid Reinforced Aluminium Laminate), based on aramid fibres, GLARE (Glass Reinforced Aluminium Laminate), based on high strength glass fibres and CARALL (Carbon Reinforced Aluminium Laminate), based on carbon fibres. Taking advantage of the hybrid nature from their two key constituents: metals (mostly aluminium) and fibre-reinforced laminate, these composites offer several advantages such as better damage tolerance to fatigue crack growth and impact damage especially for aircraft applications. Metallic layers and fibre reinforced laminate can be bonded by classical techniques, i.e. mechanically and adhesively. Adhesively bonded fibre metal laminates have been shown to be far more fatigue resistant than equivalent mechanically bonded structures.     

Fatigue behaviour of carbon fibre-reinforced aluminium laminates

A new hybrid composite (CARALL), consisting of thin layers of carbon fibre/ epoxy prepreg sandwiched between aluminium sheets, has been developed. It is shown that this class of materials offers higher modulus, higher tensile strength and lower density than 2024-T3 alloy in the longitudinal direction. Under tension-tension fatigue loading, the hybrid laminates showed superior fatigue crack propagation resistance in the longitudinal direction, which may be attributed to the bridging effect imposed by the intact fibres in the crack wake. It has also been shown that the effectiveness of fatigue crack growth reduction increases with the thickness of the carbon fibre/epoxy layer. The resistance to fatigue crack propagation can be further improved by introducing compressive residual stresses in the aluminium layer by postcure stretching the laminate in the plastic region of the aluminium alloy.     

Experimental techniques for fracture instability toughness determination of unidirectional fibre metal laminates

ABSTRACT The aim of this work is to propose procedures for the measurement of the fracture toughness of fibre metal laminates (FMLs) reinforced with unidirectional fibres of aramid or glass. Experimental techniques for fracture toughness evaluation by using Compact (C(T)) and Single‐Edge Bend (SE(B)) specimens obeying ASTM standards are introduced. Procedures from the standard for thick metallic materials were modified in order to overcome problems, which can arise when testing FMLs – that is, specimen buckling, indentations and crack growth in planes other than the plane of the fatigue pre‐crack or notch. The methodology proposed was experimentally tested leading to satisfactory results.     

Fatigue damage development in new fibre metal laminates made by the VARTM process

This paper investigates the tensile and fatigue properties of a newly developed fibre metal laminate (FML) manufactured using the vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM) method. This manufacturing method allows the glass fibre reinforced epoxy and 2024‐T3 aluminium FML to be prepared at lower cost than conventionally manufactured FMLs. However, in order for the resin to infiltrate the FML, the metal sheets need to be perforated. These perforation holes act as crack initiators and reduce the FML's performance. Tension and fatigue test results of three different designs are reported and compared to mechanical property predictions. Additionally, single sheet Al alloy specimens were tested in order to analyse the influence of the drilling method.     

On the notch sensitivity of flax fibre metal laminates under static and fatigue loading

Damage progression and failure characteristics of open‐hole flax fibre aluminium laminate (flax‐FML) specimens subjected to quasi‐static tensile or tension‐tension fatigue loading were experimentally investigated. Notched and unnotched flax‐FML composites exhibited brittle fracture with little or no fibre pull‐out and minimal delamination at the aluminium/adhesive interface. The flax‐FMLs were tested to failure under tension‐tension fatigue loading conditions (R ratio of 0.1; frequency of 10 Hz; applied fatigue stresses ranging between 30% and 80% of the respective ultimate tensile strength values). The fatigue cycles to failure decreased with the increase in the applied fatigue stress and hole diameter. A phenomenological modelling technique was developed to evaluate the fatigue life of an open‐hole flax‐FML composite. Fatigue tests on specimens subjected to a maximum load equivalent to 35% of the respective tensile failure strength were interrupted at around 85% of the corresponding fatigue life. The accumulated fatigue damage in these specimens was characterised using X‐ray computed tomography. For benchmarking purposes, the fatigue performance and related damage progression in the flax‐FML composite were compared with those of the glass‐FMLs.     

Fatigue crack growth and delamination behaviours of advanced Al‐Li alloy laminate under single tensile overload

In this paper, fatigue crack growth and delamination behaviours of a new fibre metal laminate (FML) named as Al‐Li alloy laminate were tested under different single tensile overloads and compared with those of glass laminate aluminium reinforced epoxy. The results indicate that the crack growth rate of Al‐Li alloy laminate after overload applied can quickly get back to its original level when the crack grows outside of the overload plastic zone. The overload has no influence on the delamination shape and size of Al‐Li alloy laminate. These results are obviously different from those found in the present study for GLARE, in which the crack growth rate cannot recover after overload, even though the crack is far beyond the overload plastic zone. A kink nearby the location of overload applied was found in the obtained delamination shape. This study provides some new results for better understanding the damage tolerance mechanism of FMLs.     

碳纤维/铝/环氧复合板的初步研究

本文揭示了碳纤维/铝/环氧复合板的显微结构,比重、热胀性能与碳纤维含量的关系,探讨了增强组份的表面处理、碳纤维/铝的叠层结构设计、碳纤维含量、纤维混杂对复合板力学性能的影响。试验表明:碳纤维/铝/环氧复合板具有轻质、低热胀、高强度等特点,当碳纤维增强环氧的含量为55vol%时,它的拉伸,弯曲与剪切强度达到或超过芳纶纤维或玻璃纤维/铝/环氧复合板的相应值。     

The response of aluminium/GLARE hybrid materials to impact and to in-plane fatigue

Fibre metal laminates (FMLs), such as glass reinforced aluminium (GLARE), are a family of materials with excellent damage tolerance and impact resistance properties. This paper presents an evaluation of the low velocity impact behaviour and the post-impact fatigue behaviour of GLARE laminate adhesively bonded to a high strength aluminium alloy substrate as a fatigue crack retarder. The damage initiation, damage progression and failure modes under impact and fatigue loading were examined and characterised using an ultrasonic phased array C-scan together with metallography and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). After impact on the substrate, internal damage to the GLARE bonded on the opposite side of the substrate occurred in the form of fibre and matrix cracking. No delamination was detected at the GLARE/substrate bond. Before impact the bonded GLARE strap caused reductions in substrate fatigue crack growth rate of up to a factor of 5. After impact the retardation was a factor of 2. The results are discussed in terms of changes to the GLARE stiffness promoted by the impact damage.     

Fatigue crack growth in hybrid boron/glass/aluminium fibre metal laminates

The crack growth behaviour of hybrid boron/glass/aluminium fibre metal laminates (FMLs) under constant‐amplitude fatigue loading was investigated. The hybrid FMLs consist of Al 2024‐T3 alloy as the metal layers and a mixture of boron fibres and glass fibres as the fibre layers. Two types of boron/glass/aluminium laminates were fabricated and tested. In the first type, the glass fibre/prepreg and the boron fibre/prepreg were used separately in the fibre layers, and in the second type, the boron fibres and the glass fibres were uniformly mingled together to form a hybrid boron fibre/glass fibre prepreg. An analytical model was also proposed to predict the fatigue crack growth behaviour of hybrid boron/glass/aluminium FMLs. The effective stress intensity factor at a crack tip was formulated as a function of the remote stress intensity factor, crack opening stress intensity factor, and the bridging stress intensity factor. The bridging stress acting on the delamination boundary along the crack length was also calculated based on the crack opening relations. Then, the empirical Paris‐type fatigue crack growth law was used for predicting the crack growth rates. A good correlation between the predicted and experimental crack growth rates has been obtained.     

FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF FIBRE ALUMINIUM LAMINATES WITH DIFFERENT RESIDUAL STRESSES

In this study two kinds of fibre aluminium laminates (aramid aluminium laminates, ARALL and glass aluminium laminates, GLARE) with different residual stresses in the aluminium layers were prepared. Fatigue crack propagation tests were performed. It is found that the residual stress condition plays an important role in the fatigue behaviour of fibre aluminium laminates. With a decrease of the tensile residual stress in the aluminium layers, the fatigue crack growth rate of the laminates is greatly reduced, and the shape of the curves of fatigue crack propagation rate as a function of the stress intensity factor changed. Compared to GLARE, the ARALL is more sensitive to the residual stress condition. The fatigue properties of non-prestressed GLARE are better than those of ARALL. The influence of the residual stress is discussed in detail.     

Improvement of the fracture toughness of adhesively bonded stainless steel joints with aramid fibers at cryogenic temperatures

Adhesives should be reinforced with reinforcing fibers for the bonding of adherends at cryogenic temperatures because all the adhesives become quite brittle at cryogenic temperatures. In this work, the film-type epoxy adhesive was reinforced with randomly oriented aramid fiber mats to decrease the CTE (Coefficient of Thermal Expansion) of the adhesive and to improve the fracture toughness of adhesive joints composed of stainless steel adherends at the cryogenic temperature of −150 °C. The cleavage tests of the DCB (Double Cantilever Beam) adhesive joints were performed to evaluate the fracture toughness and crack resistance of the adhesive joints. Also, the thermal and mechanical properties of the fiber reinforced adhesive layer were measured to investigate the relationship between the fracture toughness of adhesive joints and fiber volume fraction of aramid fibers. From the experiments, it was found that the crack propagated in the adhesive with the stable mode of significantly increased fracture toughness when the film-type epoxy adhesive was reinforced with aramid fiber mats. The optimum volume fraction of aramid fibers was suggested for the film-type epoxy adhesive in the adhesive joint at the cryogenic temperature of −150 °C.     

Effect of fiber bridging on the fatigue crack propagation in carbon fiber-reinforced aluminum laminates

A superior crack propagation resistance was observed on various carbon fiber-reinforced aluminum laminates (CARALL) under tension-tension fatigue. It might be attributed to the restraint on the crack opening imposed by intact fibers in the crack wake. These fibers bridging the crack could reduce the effective stress intensity factor actually experienced by the crack tip. Based on the measurement of crack length and delamination size, the effective stress intensity range, ΔK_eff, of fatigue-damaged CARALL laminate was calculated by using a simplified analytical model. It was shown that the fatigue crack propagation rate in CARALL could be expressed as a unique function of the calculated ΔK_eff, which agree well with the Paris equation for the unreinforced aluminum alloy. This result confirmed the applicability of this simplified analytical model in CARALL laminates.     

基于纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料试验的单向层合板横向拉伸强度预测方法

实验研究表明,纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料试件的横向拉伸强度与工程上常用的单向层合板横向拉伸强度在趋势上具有很好的相关性,但是数值上存在一定差距。本文使用两种碳纤维和两种环氧树脂制备了三种纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板,并分别测量了纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板的横向拉伸强度,以及环氧基体的拉伸强度。在实验基础上,应用Griffith断裂强度理论建立了纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板的横向拉伸强度的关系模型,通过两种复合材料实验的结果拟合了该模型中的参数。利用第三种复合材料实验进行校验,发现该模型预测的单向层合板横向拉伸强度与实测强度之间达到很好的一致性,相对偏差为9%。采用本文提出的方法,可以用较为简单的纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和环氧基体拉伸试验预测单向层合板的横向拉伸强度。     

Damage tolerance assessment by bend and shear tests of two multilayer composites: Glass fibre reinforced metal laminate and aluminium roll-bonded laminate

The damage tolerance of an aluminium roll-bonded laminate (ALH19) and a glass fibre reinforced laminate (GLARE) (both based on Al 2024-T3) has been studied. The composite laminates have been tested under 3-point bend and shear tests on the interfaces to analyze their fracture behaviour. During the bend tests different fracture mechanisms were activated for both laminates, which depend on the constituent materials and their interfaces. The high intrinsic toughness of the pure Al 1050 layers present in the aluminium roll-bonded laminate (ALH19), together with extrinsic toughening mechanisms such as crack bridging and interface delamination were responsible for the enhanced toughness of this composite laminate. On the other hand, crack deflection by debonding between the glass fibres and the plastic resin in GLARE was the main extrinsic toughening mechanism present in this composite laminate.     

拉压加载下纤维增强铝合金层板疲劳裂纹扩展的压载荷效应与预测模型

基于增量塑性损伤理论与纤维增强金属层板疲劳裂纹扩展唯象方法, 推导出在拉-压循环加载下, 纤维增强金属层板疲劳裂纹扩展速率预测模型。并通过玻璃纤维增强铝合金层板在应力比R=-1,-2的疲劳裂纹扩展实验对预测模型进行验证。结果表明, 纤维增强铝合金层板疲劳裂纹扩展的压载荷效应分为两种情况: 在有效循环应力比R_C>0时, 表现为压载荷对铝合金层所承受残余拉应力的抵消作用; 当R_C<0时, 表现为压载荷抵消残余拉应力后, 对纤维增强铝合金层板金属层的塑性损伤, 对疲劳裂纹扩展存在促进作用。纤维铝合金层板疲劳裂纹扩展的压载荷效应不可忽略, 本文中得出的在拉-压循环加载下疲劳裂纹扩展速率预测模型与实验结果符合较好。     

玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板对球形弹斜冲击响应特性实验研究

为了研究玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板在球形弹高速斜冲击下的损伤特性,利用一级气炮对2 mm厚度的玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料层合板和含一层、三层304不锈钢网的玻璃纤维-不锈钢网混杂增强环氧树脂层合板进行倾角为30°的冲击实验,以揭示304不锈钢网对层合板弹道极限和能量吸收的影响规律,并分析层合板损伤特征及其机理。通过实验发现,含有三层不锈钢网层合板的弹道极限最高,而不含不锈钢网层合板和含一层不锈钢网层合板的弹道极限速度接近。层合板吸收的能量随着弹体速度增加呈现出先增加后趋于平稳,然后急剧上升的趋势。层合板损伤模式为基体开裂和破碎、分层、不锈钢丝拉伸断裂、纤维拉伸断裂和剪切断裂。层合板分层损伤面积随弹体速度增大先增大后减小,最后趋于稳定。当弹体速度较低时,层合板主要发生纤维拉伸断裂、基体开裂、层间有分层损伤产生。随着弹体速度的增大,层合板正面纤维逐渐发生压剪断裂、基体破碎,背面纤维发生严重的拉伸撕裂。      

Effects of stress waveform and water absorption on the fatigue strength of angle-ply aramid fiber/epoxy composites

The influences of stress waveform and water absorption on the tension–tension fatigue fracture behavior were investigated in ±45° angle-ply laminates of aramid fiber reinforced epoxy matrix composite. For dry specimens, the fatigue strength under negative pulse waveform was higher than that under the positive pulse waveform. Rotation of fibers to the longitudinal direction, which resulted from creep deformation caused by the cyclic loading superimposed on the maximum stress hold time, decreased the compliance, thereby increasing the fatigue life under the negative pulse waveform. Water absorption degraded the fiber/matrix interfacial strength and caused the swelling of the matrix, which resulted in decreases in the static tensile strength and fatigue strength. Although the strength under the negative pulse waveform was slightly higher than that under the positive one, the influence of stress waveform on fatigue strength was smaller in wet specimens.     

Fatigue residual strength of circular laminate graphite–epoxy composite plates damaged by transverse load

The research dealt with the relation between damage and tension–tension fatigue residual strength (FRS) in a quasi-isotropic carbon fibre reinforced epoxy resin laminate. The work was organized in two phases: during the first one, composite laminates were damaged by means of an out-of-plane quasi-static load that was supposed to simulate a low velocity impact; in the second phase, fatigue tests were performed on damaged and undamaged specimens obtained from the original composite laminates. During the quasi-static transverse loading phase, damage progression was monitored by means of acoustic emission (AE) technique. The measurement of the strain energy accumulated in the specimens and of the acoustic energy released by fracture events made it possible to estimate the amount of induced damage and evaluate the quasi-static residual tensile strength of the specimens. A probabilistic failure analysis of the fatigue data, reduced by the relative residual strength values, made it possible to relate the FRS of damaged specimens with the fatigue strength of undamaged ones.     

Bonded aircraft repairs under variable amplitude fatigue loading and at low temperatures

Bonded repairs can replace mechanically fastened repairs for aircraft structures. Compared to mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding provides a more uniform and efficient load transfer into the patch, and can reduce the risk of high stress concentrations caused by additional fastener holes necessary for riveted repairs. Previous fatigue tests on bonded Glare (glass‐reinforced aluminium laminate) repairs were performed at room temperature and under constant amplitude fatigue loading. However, the realistic operating temperature of ?40 °C may degrade the material and will cause unfavourable thermal stresses. Bonded repair specimens were tested at ?40 °C and other specimens were tested at room temperature after subjecting them to temperature cycles. Also, tests were performed with a realistic C‐5A Galaxy fuselage fatigue spectrum at room temperature. The behaviour of Glare repair patches was compared with boron/epoxy ones with equal extensional stiffness. The thermal cycles before fatigue cycling did not degrade the repair. A constant temperature of ?40 °C during the mechanical fatigue load had a favourable effect on the fatigue crack growth rate. Glare repair patches showed lower crack growth rates than boron/epoxy repairs. Finite element analyses revealed that the higher crack growth rates for boron/epoxy repairs are caused by the higher thermal stresses induced by the curing of the adhesive. The fatigue crack growth rate under spectrum loading could be accurately predicted with stress intensity factors calculated by finite element modelling and cycle‐by‐cycle integration that neglected interaction effects of the different stress amplitudes, which is possible because stress intensities at the crack tip under the repair patch remain small. For an accurate prediction it was necessary to use an effective stress intensity factor that is a function of the stress ratio at the crack tip R_{crack tip} including the thermal stress under the bonded patch.     

Residual strength of unidirectional fibre-metal laminates based on JC toughness of C(T) and SE(B) specimens: comparison with M(T) test results

Fibre‐metal laminates (FMLs) are structural composites designed with the aim of producing very low fatigue crack‐propagation rate, damage‐tolerant and high‐strength materials, if compared to aeronautical Al alloys. Their application in aeronautical structures demands a deep knowledge of a wide set of mechanical properties and technological values, including both fracture toughness and residual strength. The residual strength of FMLs have been traditionally determined by using wide centre‐cracked tension panels M(T). The use of this geometry requires large quantities of material and heavy laboratory facilities. In this work, fracture toughness ( J_C) of some unidirectional FMLs laminates was measured using a recently proposed methodology for critical fracture toughness evaluation on compact tension C(T) and single‐edge bend SE(B) specimens. Additionally, residual strength values of wider M(T) specimens with different widths (W from 150 to 200 mm) and several crack to width ratios (2a/W) were experimentally obtained. Some experimental residual strength values of M(T) specimens (W from 150 to 400 mm and different 2a/W ratios) of Arall were also obtained from the bibliography. Based on J_C results from C(T) and SE(B) specimens, and either using or not using crack‐tip plasticity corrections, the residual strengths of the M(T) specimens were predicted and compared to the experimental ones. The results showed good agreement, especially when crack‐tip plasticity corrections were applied.