Carl Rogers during initial interviews: A moderate and consistent therapist.

Analyzes completely 2 initial interviews by Rogers using R. R. Carkhuff's (1969) scales, the Counselor Verbal Response Category System, and a brief grammatical analysis to establish the level and consistency with which Rogers provides facilitative conditions. Data were combined into quarters of each interview. It was found that Rogers manifested moderate levels of empathy, respect, and genuineness throughout both interviews and that his behavior as counselor, according to the 3 classification systems used, was stable and consistent within and across interviews. It is proposed that Rogers's moderate level may be typical of his approach to counseling. His stability and consistency are considered to be in keeping with his theoretical approach but at variance with literature indicating that the facilitative conditions should be offered in a variable manner contingent on the changing needs of specific clients. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal and GSR response in experimental interviews as a function of three degrees of "therapist" communication.

Volunteer Ss were placed in 3 experimental therapy situations talking to: a tape recorder; a therapist who would respond on a nonverbal level only; and a regular therapeutic situation, nondirectively oriented. The degree of manifest (GSR) and reported anxiety was obtained as well as ratings re the patient's tendency to approach meaningful areas of discussion and amount of associated affect. Over a period of 5?hr. sessions, the "regular" group showed a tendency to approach more affectively-laden content and to experience more anxiety with the initial approach, but overall anxiety reduction. "Tape" and "nonverbal" group results were discussed and compared. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A-B therapist "types" and responses to patient-communicated hostility: An analogue study.

In prior research by B. J. Betz and R. C. Carson (see 41:5, 41:9) A and B therapists obtained relatively better outcomes with schizophrenic and neurotic patients, respectively. Recent research suggests that 1 basis for these performance differences might lie in therapist-patient "complementarity" with respect to extrapunitive (E) vs. intropunitive (I) modes of handling anger; presumably, As would (E) vs. intropunitive (I) modes of handling anger; presumably, As would respond more effictively to E cues and Bs to I cues in patients To test this theory 90 undergraduate male As, ABs (middles), and Bs wrote self-selected "helpful" responses to brief, tape-recorded patient communications (E and I). Only limited support was obtained for analyses of the helping responses themselves. The predicted interaction effects were supported for Ss' evaluations of their helping performances. As paired with the E and Bs paired with the I patient were more satisfied than Ss oppositely paired (p     

"Don't know" responding to answerable and unanswerable questions during misleading and hypnotic interviews.

"Don't know" (DK) responses to interview questions are conceptually heterogeneous, and may represent uncertainty or clear statements about the contents of memory. A study examined the subjective intent of DK responses in relation to the objective status of information queried, in the context of memory distorting procedures. Participants viewed a video and responded to answerable and unanswerable questions phrased in misleading or nonmisleading formats, while hypnotized or not hypnotized. Subjective meanings of DK responses were queried, and a recognition measure assessed the contents of memory. Lower DK and accuracy rates were consistently associated with unanswerable and misleading questions. One-third of DK responses were statements that the information had no not presented. When these were recoded, accuracy estimates for answerable questions decreased and more so for hypnotized participants. These results demonstrate that DK responses convey different types of information, thus accuracy estimates in studies that permit DK responses may be misestimated. Robust risks associated with asking unanswerable questions and asking questions at all were observed. Implications for working with DK responses during interviews are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback and therapist praise during treatment of phobia.

In the context of a "reinforced practice" treatment paradigm, the present 5 experiments analyzed whether or not feedback superimposed upon contingent praise would have an additive therapeutic effect. In each of 5 18-56 yr old phobic patients (brief case histories are given) behavioral progress in the initial praise-alone phase was either slow or nonexistent. When precise feedback of performance was added to praise in the 2nd phase, however, rate of improvement increased dramatically. Withdrawal of feedback did not slow down this rate. Feedback was apparently more important than therapist praise in getting approach behavior underway, but once gains had been made, praise plus the repeated graduated practice procedure per se was able to sustain continuing improvement on its own. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vocal interruptions in dyadic communication as a function of speech and social anxiety.

The relation between a speaker's personality and his/her propensity to interrupt was examined in 30-min unstructured conversations for 36 dyads of undergraduates (12 male, 12 female, and 12 mixed sex). Two predictions were tested: (a) interruptive behavior is inversely related to speech anxiety and positively related to confidence as a speaker, and (b) interruptive behavior is inversely related to social anxiety (avoidance–distress; fear of negative evaluation). A stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed, controlling for the systematic effects of sex, the conversational partner's personality and amount of speech, and the speaker's use of back-channel responses. These hypotheses were confirmed for rate of total interruptions and rate of successful interruptions, for percentage of successful interruptions, and for mean duration of interruptions; the results withstood cross-validation analysis. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some personality and aptitudinal correlates of the "A-B" therapist scale.

On the basis of prior research showing similarities between practicing therapists and undergraduates varying in A-B status, 12 scales from the Omnibus Personality Inventory and the 4 component scores of the American College Testing Program battery were related to A-B status of about 2400 undergraduates. A stepwise discriminant analysis showed that the present set of measures significantly discriminated male As from ABs (middles) and Bs, and that the differences between As and Bs involved the joint effects of masculinity-femininity, verbal aptitude, and natural science aptitude measures. As and Bs differed in a way consistent with previous reasearch on "cognitive style." Correlational and factor-analytic data indicated that the A-B variable cannot be regarded as linearly related to those measures which discriminated As from Bs. A quasi-typological interpretation of the A-B variable was proposed and methodological implications were drawn. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure of psychotherapy: Role playing as a variable in dyadic communication.

42 Ss discussed personal experiences in dyads, with one S controlling conversation over a one-way intercom. All Ss acted as peers in Sessions 1 and 2. Experimental groups were then instructed to assume complementary patient and therapist roles in Sessions 3 and 4. Control Ss continued as peers. In Session 5 all Ss carried out unrestrained conversation. Under peer conditions, Ss distributed time for speaking approximately equally. Under psychotherapy roles, patients were allotted significantly more time, regardless of whether patient or therapist controlled the interaction. The same talk: listen ratio was maintained in Sessions 3 and 4 and continued in Session 5. The results suggest that the Ss perceived psychotherapy as a communication system in which relatively stable speaker roles are assigned to each participant. Implications of these findings were discussed. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Content analysis of the natural language of A and B males in a dyadic interaction.

Investigated the relationship of male college students' scores on the A-B dimension to the content of their natural language elicited in dyadic situations. 28 Ss randomly paired after having taken the A-B scale were instructed to talk about personal issues for 45 min. 10-min segments of these recorded sessions were transcribed, categorized, and counted according to the Harvard III Psychosociological Dictionary and C. Martindale's Regressive Imagery Dictionary. Correlations between content categories and A-B scores were calculated using a partial correlation procedure controlling for response productivity. As predicted, Bs were more defensive, focused on others, concerned with roles and institutions, and male-oriented than were As. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal interaction of patients and therapists during psychiatric interviews.

Videotaped interviews of 50 psychiatric inpatients and 25 control Ss with 5 psychiatrists and analyzed the nonverbal behavior, which was coded and recorded every 10 sec for 2 5-min segments per interview. After the interview the therapists rated the Ss on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS). Results show that the psychiatric patients held their legs symmetrically, groomed themselves, shifted posture, and frowned more than the control Ss did, and smiled and looked toward the therapist less. Nonverbal behavior of patients varied according to BPRS factor scores: Withdrawal was positively associated with turning the head away and negatively associated with smiling. Thought Disorder was positively correlated with grooming. Anxiety–Depression was associated with holding the head even and with hand tapping; and Mania was correlated with sitting upright and smiling. In interviews with patients vs controls, therapists' behavior differed in head orientation, smiling, hand tapping, and foot movements. It also differed according to the patients' ratings on the BPRS. Results are discussed in terms of affiliative–conflict theory and the construct of the therapeutic role. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A and B undergraduate interviews of schizophrenic and neurotic inpatients: A test of the interaction hypothesis.

To clarify the personological basis of the differential compatability of A and B therapists with schizophrenic and neurotic patients, A and B (determined by the Personality Research Form and the A-B Scale) undergraduate volunteers (20 males, 20 females) conducted 20-min interviews with male state hospital inpatients (40 schizophrenics, 40 neurotics) in a 2 (interviewer A–B status) by 2 (interviewer sex) by 2 (patient type) factorial design. As expected from studies of the personality correlates of A–B status, many more B than A interviewers "looked forward" to conducting the interviews. Once in the interview situation, however, A-type interviewers elicited better self-disclosure from schizophrenic patients than did Bs, whereas the latter outperformed As with neurotic patients. Results are discussed in terms of a personological formulation that considers interviewer effectiveness to be a joint function of interviewer personality characteristics and the situational context. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A simple device for obtaining certain verbal activity measures during interviews.

This paper describes a new instrument devised by G. F. Mahl to determine the duration of time spent talking by the participants in psychotherapy, and the amount of time the patient is silent during successive 2-minute intervals of individual interviews as well as during larger and variable time intervals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatiotemporal symmetry and multifractal structure of head movements during dyadic conversation.

This study examined the influence of sex, social dominance, and context on motion-tracked head movements during dyadic conversations. Windowed cross-correlation analyses found high peak correlation between conversants’ head movements over short (≈2-s) intervals and a high degree of nonstationarity. Nonstationarity in head movements was found to be positively related to the number of men in a conversation. Surrogate data analysis offsetting the conversants’ time series by a large lag was unable to reject the null hypothesis that the observed high peak correlations were unrelated to short-term coordination between conversants. One way that high peak correlations could be observed when 2 time series are offset by a large time lag is for each time series to exhibit self-similarity over a range of scales. Multifractal analysis found small-scale fluctuations to be persistent, τ(q) 0.5. These results are consistent with a view that symmetry is formed between conversants over short intervals and that this symmetry is broken at longer, irregular intervals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need affiliation and frequency of four types of communication.

"… the results of an attempt to relate need for affiliation to the frequency of four types of communication: (a) use of long distance telephone for social calls, (b) use of the local telephone, (c) writing letters, and (d) visiting close friends and relatives living at a distance." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Therapeutic" interventions of clinicians in standardized interviews: A test of the social competition model.

An experienced sample of 14 psychiatrists and 2 clinical psychologists interviewed an actress patient according to a standardized procedure which required them to deliver a series of evaluations of her self-presentations. Unknown to them, the actress patient was programed to adopt either a strong or a weak competitive strategy. Although the Ss operated under a therapeutic set, their evaluative behavior was in essential accord with the predictions of a social competition model. As predicted, the actress patient was seen as more severely impaired if her strategy was weak than if it was strong. Regardless of her strategy, high-need-for-approval Ss used relatively few negative evaluations and were relatively uncomfortable during their interviews. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Faulty" communication and the spiral aftereffect: A methodological critique.

"23 children were tested for spiral aftereffect under a method designed to obtain their responses under actual as well as illusory conditions. It was found that virtually all Ss who responded correctly under actual conditions were able to report correctly under illusory conditions. Ss considerably younger in CA and lower in MA were able to achieve success in the task under present conditions than were able to achieve success in a previously reported investigation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of nonverbal communication and rater proximity on impressions and decisions in simulated employment interviews.

Examined the influences of nonverbal communication and different methods of assessing a job applicant. 72 female Ss saw either an immediate or nonimmediate applicant while serving as an interviewer, observer, or television observer. (Immediacy was manipulated through several nonverbal channels of communication: eye contact, smiling, posture, interpersonal distance, and body orientation.) Both observers were yoked to the interviewer. Results clearly indicate that nonverbal communication had a significant effect on interview impressions and subsequent decisions. Further, several self-report measures suggest different degrees of involvement as a function of the rater's proximity. Implications for future research and novel interviewing techniques are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of mothers'' and preschool children''s aversive behaviors during dyadic interactions

The neuronal organization of the spinal cord in red stingray was studied using the rapid Golgi method. The gray matter of the spinal cord was divided into seven laminae: RS-I, RS-II, RS-III, RS-IV, RS-V, RS-VI and RS-VII. RS-I is cell dense lamina which occupies the major part of the dorsal horn and corresponds to laminae I and II of the spinal cord of mammals, birds and reptiles. The neurons of the lamina I are interspersed with those of lamina II, without forming a discrete lamina. RS-II is located at the base of the dorsal horn and is considered to correspond to the nucleus proprius. RS-III and IV form the intermediate zone and are highly reticulated. A few neurons of various shapes and sizes are distributed among the numerous fibers. The nuclei such as the intermediolateral, intermediomedial or Clarke's nucleus cannot be identified in the intermediate zone. RS-V and VI constitute the ventral horn. RS-V occupies the major part of the ventral horn and contains motoneurons which are distributed diffusely, without forming any distinct cell groups. RS-VI is located in the ventromedial part of the ventral horn, contains commissural neurons and correspond to lamina VIII. RS-VII is a small area surrounding the central canal and corresponds to lamina X. Thus, while the major features of the spinal cord of the red stingray can be correlated with those of the spinal cord of mammals, birds and reptiles, the neuronal organization of the spinal cord of the red stingray remains in an undifferentiated state.     

The pathology of viral hepatitis types A and B in chimpanzees. A comparison

The histologic manifestations in the livers of chimpanzees inoculated with hepatitis A and B virus were compared with each other and correlated with biochemical, serologic, and virologic observations. Both types of hepatitis reveal alterations similar to those seen in human hepatitis, but the lesions--particularly the hepatocellular necrosis--are far milder. Hepatitis Type A in chimpanzees is a disease of short incubation period and duration. The hepatocytic alterations are mainly restricted to the periportal areas, and the parenchymal changes are less severe than the portal inflammation. The lesions correlated well with biochemical changes, the presence of virus in the liver, and its shedding in the stool. In contrast, experimental Type B hepatitis has a long incubation period and longer duration, involves the entire lobular parenchyma, and is, if anything, more severe in the lobular centers while portal inflammation is less conspicuous. Biochemical alterations and presence of virus in the liver correlate with these lesions, and the antibody response is similar to that seen in man. The chimpanzee is a useful model for studying the pathogenesis of viral hepatitis; additional study of serial morphologic events may contribute to our understanding of the clinical differences between hepatitis Type A and Type B.