The temporal structure of face-to-face communication between mothers and infants.

Videotaped 37 infants in face-to-face play with their mothers at 6, 13, and 26 wks of age. Analysis proceeded at 3 levels: (a) Ss' periods of attention toward the mothers significantly overlapped with the mothers' facially expressive behavior, especially as Ss grew older. Whereas the total proportion of time looking at mothers decreased, the time looking at them while they were on did not decrease. (b) Ss' Vocalizations, Smiles, and Mouth Openings clustered into "runs" (as described by previous investigators), but at 6 wks these occurred only when the mothers were on. By 26 wks of age, Ss' clusters of expression had become autonomous turns in a dialoglike exchange. (c) Analysis of contingent sequences following the onset of infant attention showed that with Ss 6 wks old, mothers' facial greetings—Nodding, Smiling, and so forth—were only rarely effective in eliciting expressive greetings, but without the mothers' greetings Ss almost never made such responses. With 13-wk-old Ss, mothers more easily elicited greetings, and some spontaneous (unelicited) greetings by Ss could also be seen. With 26-wk-old Ss, the spontaneous greetings had become as frequent as those elicited by the mothers. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of decisions to seek medical treatment by patients with acute myocardial infarction symptoms.

Among 43 myocardial infarction patients (mean age 53.4 yrs), Ss who delayed between noting initial symptoms and deciding they were ill were those who reported that they characteristically exhibited some Type A behaviors, experienced little initial pain at a time when work was quite demanding, responded to their symptoms with depression and fatigue, and were currently quite pessimistic about their health. Those who delayed between deciding they were ill and seeking treatment were those who were assessed as Type B on the structured interview and who talked to others to assess the meaning of their symptoms. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In vitro fertilization and the family: Quality of parenting, family functioning, and child psychosocial adjustment.

This study examined associations between homologous in vitro fertilization (IVF) and quality of parenting, family functioning, and emotional and behavioral adjustment of 3–7-year-old children. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Taiwan with 54 IVF mother–child pairs and 59 mother–child pairs with children conceived naturally. IVF mothers reported a greater level of protectiveness toward their children than control mothers. Teachers, blind to condition, rated IVF mothers as displaying greater warmth but not overprotective or intrusive parenting behaviors toward their children. Teachers scored children of IVF as having fewer behavioral problems than control children. In contrast, IVF mothers reported less satisfaction with aspects of family functioning. Family composition moderated parenting stress: IVF mothers with only 1 child perceived less parenting stress than did those in the control group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal emotional signaling: Its effect on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year-olds.

Studied the effect of maternal facial expressions of emotion on 108 12-mo-old infants in 4 studies. The deep side of a visual cliff was adjusted to a height that produced no clear avoidance and much referencing of the mother. In Study 1, 19 Ss viewed a facial expression of joy, while 17 Ss viewed one of fear. In Study 2, 15 Ss viewed interest, while 18 Ss viewed anger. In Study 3, 19 Ss viewed sadness. In Study 4, 23 Ss were used to determine whether the expressions influenced Ss' evaluation of an ambiguous situation or whether they were effective in controlling behavior merely because of their discrepancy or unexpectedness. Results show that Ss used facial expressions to disambiguate situations. If a mother posed joy or interest while S referenced, most Ss crossed the deep side. If a mother posed fear or anger, few Ss crossed. In the absence of any depth whatsoever, few Ss referenced the mother and those who did, while the mother was posing fear, hesitated but crossed nonetheless. It is suggested that facial expressions regulate behavior most clearly in contexts of uncertainty. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conforming behavior of psychiatric and medical patients.

"A group of ten non-psychotic psychiatric patients in the open ward of a general hospital was compared with seven medical patients without disabling psychiatric symptoms, with respect to the variability of their judgments of the autokinetic phenomenon… . The results indicated that neurotic Ss were consistently more variable than nonneurotic Ss in their judgments and were less affected by the group influence." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers and blankets as agents for promoting play and exploration by young children in a novel environment: The effects of social and nonsocial attachment objects.

A total of 64 blanket-attached and nonattached children (32.5 mo of age) were exposed to a novel play setting involving either the child's mother, blanket, favorite hard toy, or no object at all. Blanket-attached Ss with blankets present showed no distress and explored and played (a) as much as Ss with their mothers present, (b) more than blanket-nonattached Ss in situations when blankets were available, and (c) more than all Ss in situations where the favorite toy or no object was available. When the familiar object was subsequently removed from the playroom, Ss previously exposed to their mothers postponed distress behavior more than those exposed to the other objects. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent mothers' relationships with their own mothers: Impact on parenting outcomes.

This study examined the relationship between mother–grandmother relationship quality and adolescent mothers' parenting behaviors using longitudinal multimethod, multi-informant data. Participants were 181 urban, African American adolescent mothers. Self-report data on mother–grandmother relationship conflict and depressive symptoms were collected after delivery and at 6-, 13-, and 24-month follow-up visits. Videotaped observations were used to measure mother–grandmother relationship quality at baseline. Mother–child interactions were videotaped at 6, 13, and 24 months to operationalize parenting. Mixed-model regression methods were used to investigate the relation between mother–grandmother relationships and mother–child interactions. Mother–grandmother relationship quality predicted both negative control and nurturing parenting. Mothers whose own mothers were more direct (both demanding and clear) and who reported low relationship conflict demonstrated low negative control in their parenting. Mothers who demonstrated high levels of individuation (a balance of autonomy and mutuality) and reported low relationship conflict showed high nurturing parenting. The implications of these findings for adolescent health and emotional development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dependency in day-care and home-care children.

Compared 32 4- and 5-year-old boys and girls who attended full-time group day care with 32 home-care matched Ss on proximity-seeking and attention-seeking measures of dependency. Ss were rated on these measures when they were alone with their mothers, with their mothers and a confederate adult, and with their mothers and a confederate child. No differences between day-care and home-care Ss were obtained. However, there was an interaction between type of care and sex: Although there was no difference between day-care boys and girls, home-care girls sought proximity toward their mothers significantly more often than home-care boys. Since dependency is one of the dimensions on which sex differences are frequently found, results suggest that day-care children may be less sex typed than home-care children. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of vision in maternal attachment: Giving 2-year-olds a photograph of their mother during separation.

After being separated from their mothers, 48 Ss (20–30 mo old) were given either an unrecognizable or a sharply focused photograph of their mother to carry with them in an unfamiliar playroom. A female escort either correctly identified the photograph for the Ss, mislabeled it as a picture of a stranger, or gave it no verbal label. Ss with a clear photograph played, explored, and remained in the playroom longer than those presented with a blurred image. They also held, looked at, and spontaneously named the picture more. The verbal labels exerted no effects on separation behaviors or on responses directed toward the photographs. Results indicate that visual perception alone can suffice to provide Ss as young as 20 mo with some of the functional properties of their mother. (71 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Father, mother, and stranger as elicitors of attachment behaviors in infancy.

Compared fathers with mothers and strangers as elicitors of attachment behaviors in 10 male and 10 female infants from each of 3 age groups (10, 13, and 16 mo). Differential proximity-seeking behavior, distress vocalization, and stranger eye contact from a "secure base" were used to index attachment. Fathers were superior to strangers as elicitors of attachment behaviors but 2nd to mothers at all age levels. When both parents were present, Ss approached mothers twice as often as fathers. Tested with each parent separately, they traveled to the mother in a shorter time than they traveled the same distance to the father and spent more time near the mother. The amount of eye contact with strangers was greater when Ss were near mothers as compared to fathers. Distress vocalization during separation from the parents was one of the few measures which did not discriminate between mothers and fathers. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys who fight at home and school: Family conditions influencing cross-setting consistency.

Compared boys reported to fight at home or at school, and those reported to fight in both settings in terms of their behavior and family backgrounds to test the hypothesis that Ss identified as fighters in both home and school settings would show higher rates of coercive and disobedient behavior in the home than Ss identified as nonfighters or fighters in a single setting. Ss were 74 4th-grade, 78 7th-grade, and 58 10th-grade males, and 17.6% of Ss were classified as fighters in the home by their mothers. Results support the hypothesis: Ss reported to fight by both mothers and teachers scored substantially higher than other Ss on measures of antisocial behavior. Their parents showed poorer monitoring and disciplining practices than parents of the other Ss, and their families were also characterized by more marital conflict, poor problem-solving skills, and parental rejection. Ss who fought only at home had mothers who were less coercive than Ss who fought only at school, as detected by home observations. Findings are discussed in terms of the prevention and treatment of physical violence by boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Breakdown in high-risk subjects: Familial and early environmental factors.

Studied 40 children with schizophrenic mothers, selected from a larger study. 20 suffered breakdown; the others were matched controls. The mothers of Ss in the breakdown group experienced more emotional stress during their pregnancies than did the mothers of the improved group. Ss in the breakdown group suffered loss of mother at an earlier age and tended significantly not to acquire a substitute mother. The breakdown group tended to have mentally ill fathers as well as schizophrenic mothers. There were no fathers hospitalized for mental illness in the improved group. Results are discussed in terms of the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electromyographic patterns associated with nonnutritive sucking in 11–13-day-old rat pups.

Three experiments used an EMG technique to measure the frequency, duration, and intensity of nonnutritive sucking (NNS) in 56 11–13 day old Wistar pups. Ss were separated from their mothers for 2–6 or 20–24 hrs and then allowed to suckle an anesthetized dam for up to 3 hrs without receiving any milk. Jaw-muscle EMG and nipple detachments were recorded. EMG patterns representing 2 discrete modes of sucking were reliably discerned, as were changes in overall intensity of EMG. 20–24 hr separated Ss engaged in more frequent NNS bouts and bouts of longer duration than 2–6 hr separated Ss. Ss separated by 20–24 hrs also engaged in a mode of NNS not seen in 2–6 hr separated Ss. Overall EMG intensity was higher and frequency of nipple detachments was lower in Ss separated for 20–24 hrs. In both groups, but particularly the 20–24 hr Ss, frequency of some NNS patterns decreased as the length of the "dry" suckling increased. EMG intensity also decreased over time in both groups, and frequency of nipple detachments increased in 2–6 hr separated Ss. Data indicate that some aspects of NNS are highly labile and respond to variations of both deprivation from the mother and nutritive deprivation. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuroticism and disclosure reciprocity.

32 college males with either normal or neurotic MMPI profiles participated in a dyadic interaction via telephone with a confederate who disclosed at either a high or low level of intimacy. Following the confederate's disclosure, Ss disclosed as long and as intimately as they cared to. Ratings of Ss' disclosures revealed that (a) normal Ss exposed to a high-disclosing confederate spent significantly more time in intimate disclosure than those exposed to a low-disclosing confederate and (b) neurotic Ss spent very little time in intimate self-disclosure, regardless of the level of disclosure they received from a confederate. This failure of neurotic Ss to reciprocate highly intimate disclosure is examined via a model that views appropriate self-disclosure as requiring several intra- and interpersonal skills. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in self-control behaviors and tolerance of painful stimulation.

Studied the relation between Ss' general repertoire of self-control behaviors and their ability to tolerate a cold pressor. In Exp I, with 40 undergraduate Ss, it was found that Ss who were instructed to think of a pleasant event while exposed to a cold pain tolerated that pain longer than a control group, thus replicating previous findings. In Exp II, with 54 undergraduate Ss, one experimental group was required to spend 5 min in self-planning of strategies to cope with the upcoming pain, and a 2nd group was merely informed on the effectiveness of self-control methods in coping with pain. Both groups did not show longer durations than Ss in a control group who were not encouraged to employ their own self-control methods. High self-control (HSC) Ss across the various treatment conditions consistently tolerated the cold pressor longer than low self-control Ss. HSC Ss also reported using self-control methods more often and more effectively while exposed to the cold pressor. The 2 self-control groups did not differ in their ratings of pain intensity. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal profiles and neurotic symptoms: Are they associated with each other?

The idea that neurotic symptoms are determined by interpersonal characteristics is of central importance for psychoanalytic theory, diagnostics, and treatment. In the present paper, the hypotheses were tested that (1) in general, neurotic symptoms are associated with interpersonal problems and (2) more specific, that a hysterical and an obsessional interpersonal dimension underlie the field of neurotic symptoms and that both dimensions are associated with specific types of neurotic symptoms. In a first study, the hysterical and obsessional interpersonal profiles were mapped by correlating clinicians' ratings on hysteria and obsessional neurosis with the scales of the IIP-64 interpersonal circumplex in a sample of neurotic outpatients. Hysteria was associated with nonassertive, overly accommodating, and self-sacrificing interpersonal behavior and obsessional neurosis was associated with vindictive and cold interpersonal behavior. In a second study, associations of these interpersonal profiles with different SCL-90-R neurotic symptom clusters were investigated in a second sample of neurotic patients and in student sample. The results showed that both interpersonal profiles were significantly associated with a wide range of neurotic symptoms. However, the hypothesized differential associations of the hysterical and obsessional interpersonal profile with distinguished types of neurotic symptoms were not observed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role learning and interview communication.

In a study with 32 female undergraduates, Ss who differed on a measure of parental identification discussed public and private areas of experience during dyadic interviews. Supporting the assumption that fathers are crucial to the expressive-role development of daughters, Ss who identified primarily with their father rather than with their mother were more personally disclosing overall and talked longer and maintained greater spontaneity on private topics. Contrary to expectation, daughters who identified with conventional-role parents vs sex-role reversed parents did not differ in expressive behaviors. Daughters who modeled after conventional-role mothers were least expressive with their interviewer, however. Implications of sex role identification in the counseling relationship are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)