Effects of social deprivation and satiation on the reinforcing properties of social stimulation in chronic male hospitalized schizophrenics.

Hypothesized that (a) pre-experimental social deprivation will lead to an increase in the reinforcing properties of social stimulation, and (b) pre-experimental social satiation will lead to a decrease in the reinforcing properties of social stimulation. Ss were 16 chronic male 38-59 yr old schizophrenics. Ss in the social deprivation groups were isolated for 45 min before they were given a simple marble-dropping task. Ss in the social satiation groups received a 10-min undemanding conversation with E before each experimental session. Social contact with E was significantly more often sought than avoided following 45 min of social deprivation, whereas social contact was avoided significantly more often following 10 min of social satiation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Grooming behavior and competitive dominance in the albino rat.

Compared dominance in 28 male Wistar rats manifested in water competition under 2 levels of deprivation, with grooming activity in a nondeprived state. While competitive dominance was significantly related to motivational level, grooming emerged as a more stable indicator of social ascendance and did not require prior manipulation of a biological state. Implications of this observation for broader aspects of social motivation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of food deprivation on hunger motivation in golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus).

Unlike most other laboratory animals, golden hamsters do not typically increase their food intake following periods of food shortage. It is possible that the hamster feeding system may not be programmed to respond to the metabolic consequences of deprivation; expressed in motivational terms, deprived hamsters would not be hungrier than usual and therefore would not eat more than usual. However, because food consumption is influenced both by hunger motivation and by the motivation to stop eating, the amount of food eaten is not necessarily the best measure of hunger motivation. Four experiments were conducted, revealing that acute food deprivation has significant effects on latency to eat, speed of eating, consumption of a quinine-adulterated diet, open-field activity, and persistence of performance of an instrumental response during extinction. These results constitute convergent evidence that food deprivation increases the hunger motivation of golden hamsters, although deprivation does not lead to increases in the total food intake. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shared social environment and psychiatric disorder: a multilevel analysis of individual and ecological effects

We examined associations, in terms of relative and population-attributable risks, between shared social environment at the neighbourhood level and (1) treated incidence of non-psychotic, non-organic disorders, and (2) subsequent level of service consumption. The multilevel analysis used linked records of all individuals in contact for the first time with any catchment area mental health service for non-psychotic, non-organic disorder over various specified time periods between 1981 and 1995. Socioeconomic indicators of 36 neighbourhoods in the city of Maastricht yielded a multivariately defined neighbourhood deprivation score. There were significant linear trends in the association between level of deprivation and treated incidence, especially in the population under 35 years of age (adjusted rate ratio for linear trend 1.17, 95% confident interval 1.11-1.23), who constituted around half of the patient population. The fraction of the incidence of psychiatric disorder attributable to deprivation was 17.8%. Multilevel analyses of rates of a second cohort, with cases divided according to level of service use over a standardised follow-up of 5 years after first contact with psychiatric services, revealed that the effect of deprivation scores on rates declined with intensity of out-patient service use, but increased with level of in-patient use. Up to 50% of in-patient episodes in this group could be attributed to neighbourhood level of deprivation. The increase in risk conferred by neighbourhood deprivation remained after adjustment for the individual-level equivalent. The findings therefore suggest that elements in the shared social environment influence both incidence and severity of non-psychotic, non-organic disorders, over and above any individual-level effect.     

Preinstitutional social deprivation and IQ changes among institutionalized retarded children.

Administered Stanford-Binets to 52 familial and 58 nonfamilial 9-11 yr. old retardates prior to institutionalization and each yr. thereafter for 5 yr. Ratings of preinstitutional social deprivation were secured for all Ss. The nonfamilials were characterized by less severe preinstitutional deprivation and, through the course of institutionalization, increasingly greater losses in IQ. Magnitude of IQ decrease was related to the degree of preinstitutional deprivation among both familials and nonfamilials. Findings are largely consistent with the hypothesis that IQ changes in debilitating motivational factors rather than in cognitive functioning. Differences between the findings of this and earlier studies suggested that different institutions have different effects on their residents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predation, aggression, and activation levels in food-deprived sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus and L. gibbosus): Motivational interactions.

Three experiments investigated the effects of food deprivation on several behavioral categories in a total of 56 bluegill and pumpkinseed sunfish ( Lepomis macrochirus and L. gibbosus, respectively). In Exp I, predatory behavior and general activity were observed under 5 levels of deprivation. For both species, predation measures increased in a similar negatively accelerating manner with increasing deprivation, while activity changed in a more complex fashion. Exp II examined the effects of deprivation on activity in a novel environment and showed that the deprivation effects of Exp I were masked by the response to the new setting. In Exp III, measures of aggression toward intruders of each species were recorded from resident fish of both species under 3 levels of food deprivation. Both species were more aggressive toward conspecifics, and bluegills were more aggressive overall. Aggression was significantly affected by food deprivation, with the effects dependent on the species making up the pair. Theories of motivational summation, generalized drive, and activity-mediated aggression are seen as inadequate to explain the differential effects of hunger on the 3 behavioral categories observed. A dynamic boundary-state model of behavior was, however, found to predict the motivational interactions observed between distinct behavioral control systems. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social status and success strivings.

It was hypothesized that, due to differences in parental demands for success, achievement striving would be a more central motivational factor in middle class children than in working class children and that their responses to situations containing success-failure cues would be relatively consistent, despite variations in rewards offered for success. "High school students from both social classes were given a series of tasks under 2 reward conditions. In one, reward was limited to personal satisfaction derived from attaining a norm; in the other, a material reward was added to the satisfaction. Following failure experiences to induce deprivation, Ss were given McClelland's projective test for achievement motivation." The results confirmed the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social deprivation and stimulus satiation in the albino rat.

Conducted 2 experiments, with a total of 288 male Sprague-Dawley albino rats, to explore the mechanisms whereby social deprivation leads to increased sociability in rats. Exp I housed Ss alone or in pairs with additional nonsocial stimulation, with additional response opportunities, or with no added social surrogates for 3 wks prior to testing for sociability. Social deprivation led to a strong increase in sociability, and this was not ameliorated by stimulus or response enrichment. Exp II exposed alone or pair-housed Ss to handling, human contact, or no stimulation and found that human exposure did serve a social surrogate function. This result suggests that sociability in rats represents to some degree a search for complex and unpredictable stimulation. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of food deprivation on perception-cognition.

9 experiments designed to investigate the effect of food deprivation on perceptual-cognitive processes are examined in detail. An effect is revealed in only some of these experiments. The deviating results are explained by assuming that motivational state will not affect perceptual-cognitive processes unless the material presented is meaningful in relation to the motivational state. Examination of operational definitions indicate that: (1) the processes studied may be more meaningfully termed imaginary than perceptual, and (2) the motivational state of hunger may rest on the expectancy of the Ss as to when they may next receive food, rather than hr. of food deprivation. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enforced water drinking induces changes in burying behavior and social interaction test in rats

The effect of water deprivation and water intake on experimental anxiety in rats was tested using burying behavior (BB) and social interaction (SI) anxiety paradigms. Two groups of animals were studied: a control group with free access to water, and a 72-h water-deprived experimental group. Anxiety was studied in a water-deprived group or following a 10-min period of ad lib water drinking. An increase in the mean time of defensive burying in animals deprived for 72 h was observed, whereas an important reduction occurred in the levels of burying behavior immediately after the animals were allowed to drink ad lib for 10 min. These results suggest that the observed increase in defensive burying in the water-deprived animals represents an anxiogenic effect, whereas the decrease in this behavior in water-satiated animals is considered an anxiolytic action. The temporal course of reduction in burying behavior, observed after water drinking, revealed that the anxiolytic action lasts 5 min, whereas 15-30 min after drinking, burying behavior levels were similar to those in the control group. In the social interaction experiment a partial anxiogenic/anxiolytic effect of water deprivation and water intake was observed. The adaptive meaning of anxiogenic and anxiolytic changes linked to consummatory behaviors in rats is discussed on the basis of behavioral and biochemical data.     

Deprivation and satiation of social reinforcers as drive conditions.

17 boys and 17 girls in each of 3 experimental groups were used in a study of the reinforcing effectiveness of approval. One response in a 2-response game was selected for reinforcement and the 3 experimental conditions were social deprivation, nondeprivation, and satiation for approval and social contact preceding the reinforced trials. It was found that the reinforcing effectiveness of approval was relatively greatest after social deprivation, intermediate after nondeprivation, and least after satiation. Approval was effective as a reinforcer after all conditions, and boys and girls responded similarly in this experiment. 16 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acute mood responses to a 15-minute long walking session at self-selected intensity: Effects of an experimentally-induced telic or paratelic state.

In the present controlled experiment, we examine the influence of opposite states of mind (the “telic” vs. “paratelic” state) on mood response to a 15min long walk at self-selected pace. Fifty-five first-year students were randomized to a telic (n = 22) or paratelic (n = 33) motivational environment. These opposed motivational environments were created using established reversal theory based procedures to induce the telic versus paratelic state. More than 90% of participants walked within a motivational state corresponding to the environment they were allocated. No significant mood changes (neither positive, nor negative) occurred pre- to postexercise in participants who walked with the telic state operative (p > .05). This has important implications when considering the use of exercise to relieve depression in clinical populations. Also, our findings shed new light on the reasons why not all individuals respond in the same way to moderate exercise. Practically, these results suggest that motivational state should be considered to optimize the mood enhancing effects of aerobic exercise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential attitudes of international students toward seeking professional psychological help.

175 students representing 75 countries completed the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Help scale. Of the variance in total attitude, 23% was predicted from the variables age, sex, continent, educational level, time in US, and prior contact with mental health treatment. Prior contact and continent were the most important determinants, with Western (European?+?Latin) attitudes significantly more positive than non-Western (Asian?+?African). Three factors emerged: Confidence/Appropriateness, Stigma/Privacy, and Coping Alone. Prior contact subgroups were discriminated using the dimensions. The most highly significant factor was Confidence/Appropriateness, which suggests that Ss inexperienced with professional help perceived it as a nontrustworthy, inappropriate means for solving personal difficulties. Ss least concerned with the social stigma and invasion of privacy associated with treatment (the Stigma/Privacy dimension) were those who had received help in native countries. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Water deprivation optimizes hippocampal activity and facilitates nictitating membrane conditioning.

The effects of water deprivation on hippocampal responsiveness and behavior during nictitating membrane (NM) conditioning were assessed in 12 New Zealand White rabbits. Results showed that water deprivation produced a significant shift in electroencephalographic (EEG) frequencies such that deprived rabbits had a higher proportion of 2–8 Hz activity than did ad-lib controls. In subsequent NM training, the rabbits took significantly fewer trials to reach criterion (M?=?66 vs. M?=?117). A correlation coefficient quantitatively describing the relation between pretraining EEG patterns and subsequent learning rate was highly significant (r?=?.84). Multiple-unit analyses indicated that deprivation enhanced hippocampal responsiveness to the conditioning stimuli, especially early in training. It was concluded that the hippocampus is responsive to motivational level and that one role of the hippocampus is in the nonassociative, modulatory processes that affect the rate of conditioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rats define different body weights depending on palatability and accessibility of their food.

Normal adult Long-Evans rats lived on powdered diets adulterated to contain as much as 1.6% quinine sulfate, on a palatable high-fat diet, or in Skinner boxes with 45-mg Noyes pellets available on FR schedules as high as FR-256. They maintained lower body weights over periods of months in proportion to the percentage of quinine adulteration or the FR. Ss on the high-fat diet overate as much and gained weight as rapidly as Ss recovering from food deprivation, and became moderately obese. Ss having become lean or obese contingent on the palatability or accessibility of their diet defended body weight by eating more in the cold, less when force-fed by gavage, and more to restore weight after food deprivation. Yet on chow they restored and defended body weights typical of Ss whose diet had been confined to commercially prepared chow. Results are inconsistent with motivational models that rigidly distinguish drive from incentive, that treat body weight changes as evidence for failure to regulate energy balance or body weight, or that rely exclusively on deprivation of food or reduction of body weight for definitions of need for calories. Instead, caloric homeostasis in rats may incorporate ecological constraints. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of gastric loads and food deprivation on subsequent food intake in suckling rats.

In 4 experiments, a total of 478 suckling Charles River rats were subjected to deprivation periods of 6-8 hrs. Intake following deprivation was greater in deprived than in nondeprived Ss but did not increase with increasing deprivation. Gastric loads of NaCl solutions depressed subsequent intake; 3% NaCl was more effective than .9% NaCl. Other gastric loads of varying osmotic and caloric values also depressed subsequent intake. In order of increasing effectiveness in depressing intake, the gastric loads were protein hydrolystate, heavy cream, water, milk, lactose, glucose, and corn oil. Effectiveness was unrelated to osmotic or caloric value of the load. Gastric fill and, possibly, some property of carbohydrate appeared to be important determinants of satiety in the S. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Growth screening and urban deprivation

OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of urban deprivation on childhood growth in a modern British society by analysing data from a regional growth survey, the Tayside growth study. SETTING: The Tayside Region in Scotland, which has three districts with distinct socioeconomic status: Dundee (D, urban city), Angus (A, rural), and Perth (P, rural and county town). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Height and weight of 23,046 children (> 90% of the regional childhood population) were measured as part of a child health surveillance programme, by community health care workers at 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 14 years. Height standard deviation score (calculated against Tanner) and body mass index (BMI-weight (kg)/height (m)2) were calculated for each child by a central computer program; mean height standard deviation score and BMI standard deviation score were calculated for each measuring centre (school, health clinic). A deprivation score for each centre was calculated from the prevalence of single parent families; families with more than three children; unemployment rate; the number of social class V individuals; the percentage of council houses. RESULTS: Mean height standard deviation score for Tayside was 0.11. An intraregional difference was demonstrated: mean height standard deviation score (SD) D = 0.04 (1.0); A = 0.14 (1.1); P = 0.21 (1.1); P < 0.002. There was a positive association between short stature and increasing social deprivation seen throughout Tayside (P < 0.05), with a strong association in Dundee primary school children (r = 0.6; P < 0.001). Analysis by district showed that the association was significant only above the age of 8 (P < 0.004). There was no relation between BMI and social deprivation. CONCLUSIONS: In an industrialised developed society, urban deprivation appears to influence height mostly in late childhood, and this association should be taken into consideration in the clinical management of short stature. Height seems to be a better physical indicator of urban deprivation, and hence an index of childhood health, than BMI.     

Motivational control of heterogeneous instrumental chains.

Assessed sensitivity of instrumental actions to a shift in motivational state as a function of each action's proximal or distal location to a food outcome within a heterogeneous chain. The chain consisted of either a lever press and a chain pull or a lever press and a magazine-panel response. Food-deprived rats received instrumental training before performance was tested in extinction while the animals were either food deprived or undeprived. Results show when the animals were tested in the undeprived state, reexposure to the food outcome when undeprived prior to testing produced a relatively greater reduction in the test performance of distal than of proximal actions. In absence of reexposure to the outcome in the undeprived state, the proximal actions were more sensitive than the distal ones to the deprivation state on test. It is concluded that the motivational control of instrumental performance varies as a function of the location of the action within a behavioral chain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Central nervous system regulation of finicky feeding by the blowfly.

Defines finicky feeding as an animal's tendency to become more particular in accepting and choosing food as satiation is approached. The hypothesis was tested that finickiness in the blowfly is related to the balance between internal inhibition, generated by a full crop, and external sensory information, generated by oral chemoreceptor contact with food. In 4 experiments, response thresholds to sucrose and sucrose/quinine mixtures were determined for 3-day-old male and female blowflies (Phromia regina meigen) at 2 levels of food deprivation. The deterrent effect of a given quinine concentration on feeding depended on the concentration of sucrose in the mixture and the S's level of deprivation. Transection of the recurrent nerve that normally signals fullness of the crop released central inhibition and led satiated Ss to accept higher concentrations of quinine mixed with sucrose than controls accepted. Results suggest that the CNS's set point for responding to sensory excitation by sugar, rather than sensitivity to quinine, central or peripheral, determines gustatory finickiness in the blowfly. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)