The influence of source credibility attributions on expectancy theory predictions of organizational choice.

A job preview experiment was conducted with 1 between-Ss factor and 1 within-Ss factor. The between-Ss factor was information source in which the 80 female and 54 male 18–48 yr old college students were presented job information from either professional recruiters or job incumbents. The within-Ss factor was information favourability. Each S received 2 previews. One preview contained only positive information about the job, and the other contained some negative information. After exposure to the 2 job previews, Ss completed an expectancy index for each job, a source credibility scale for each preview, and were asked their job choice intentions. Results show that Ss selected the job for which the preview included some negative information more frequently than they did the job for which the preview included only positive information. Both job attractiveness and source credibility were significantly related to job choice. Information source was not related to perceived attractiveness of a job, source credibility, or job choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-subjects expectancy theory research: A statistical review of studies predicting effort and performance.

A large number of between-Ss expectancy theory studies have correlated measures of employee motivation (force) to perform with measures of effort and performance. The results of these studies vary considerably. A statistical review of the studies was conducted to determine the extent to which the variance explained (the dependent variable) was a function of various characteristics of the effort and performance and of the force-to-perform measures (the independent variables). There were 160 observations, derived from 32 studies. With the use of multiple regression analysis it was found that variance explained in these studies was greater when (a) self-report or quantitative measures of effort and performance were used rather than evaluations of these variables by someone other than the S; (b) 10–25 outcomes were included in the force measure rather than a greater or smaller number of outcomes; (c) outcome valence was numerically scaled with positive numbers only, and the scale values were described in terms of desirability rather than importance; and (d) the force measure contained either no assessment of expectancy or an assessment that confounded expectancy and instrumentality. These variables accounted for 42% of the variance in the results obtained in the studies reviewed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy theory predictions of academic effort and performance.

Used expectancy theory models to predict the academic effort and performance of 60 male undergraduates. Rating scales completed by Ss support the theory that effort is related to the degree to which the behavior (or job) is seen as leading to various outcomes weighted (multiplicatively) by the evaluation of these outcomes. The predictability of effort increased when extensions of the effort model were included by adding others' expectations and perceived influence. Ss' self-reports of effort and GPA and college entrance exam records were used to test the job performance model, which suggests that effort and ability combine to predict performance. Neither the additive nor the multiplicative models found support in this setting. The extensions and modifications of the theory are discussed in detail. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An individual-differences interpretation of the conflicting predictions generated by equity and expectancy theory.

The predictions and findings engendered by J. S. Adams's (1965) theory of equity are contrary to hypotheses deducible from expectancy theory for conditions of piece-rate overpayment. Suggested as the origin of the opposite predictions of equity theory and expectancy theory are the philosophical views of altruism and hedonism, respectively. In order to test the hypothesis that degree of moral development is a moderator of the equity phenomenon, 40 undergraduates were hired for a part-time job and assigned to simulated employment conditions. Support was obtained for anticipated differences in relationships such that increases in individual moral maturity were associated with conformity to equity theory's performance predictions for an overpayment condition (i.e., moral maturity was more inversely related to quantity of performance and most positively related to quality of performance in an overpayment condition relative to an equitable payment condition). Results support the hypothesis. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on the measurement of valence perceptions in expectancy theory research.

Recently, students of expectancy theory have begun to urge that the theory be tested as a within-person behavioral choice model. In these discussions, and in the research thus far conducted, it has been assumed that single measures of valence perceptions are adequate, presumably because these perceptions are not expected to vary much (if at all) across behavioral alternatives. This presumption was tested by examining the valence given by 702 male senior US Naval officers to 25 outcomes in 2 contexts: continuing in the active duty role and leaving the Navy to assume an anticipated retirement role. Results show that for most outcomes the ratings of valence perceptions differed across the 2 roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee attitudes and employee performance.

An examination is made of the empirical literature bearing upon the relationships between employee attitudes and employee performance. A discussion of methodological questions includes considerations of sampling, of criterion measures, and of general problems of analysis and design. Theoretical considerations include the employee's outside environment, and both union and company structures. Two conclusions are inferred from the literature reviewed: 1. Job satisfaction does not imply strong motivation for outstanding performance; and 2. "… productivity may be only peripherally related to many of the goals toward which the industrial worker is striving." 62 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alternatives to optimization in expectancy theory.

Three behavioral-choice principles were proposed and tested in the context of expectancy theory. The 1st principle, "satiation-fatigue," postulated that force (and thus effort level) was a joint function of reward value, fatigue, and boredom, and thus that force would decrease as a function of satiation and time spent on the task. Task performance of high-pay piece-rate Ss was therefore predicted to decrease over time relative to the performance of low-pay Ss. The 2nd principle, "satisficing," postulated that workers strive only to reach satisfactory outcome levels and therefore predicted that low-pay piece-rate Ss would continually outperform highly paid Ss over the course of an experimental task. The 3rd principle, "minimum necessary reward," predicted that high effort would be exerted only if Ss felt they could earn at least a minimally satisfactory outcome. Data most strongly support the minimum-necessary-reward principle, while providing no support for either the simplest version of the expectancy model or the other 2 alternatives. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Note on the utility of certainty weights in expectancy theory.

Tested the usefulness of "certainty of response" as a moderator variable in expectancy models in the context of M. Fishbein's 1967 construct of "attitude toward the act." The direct evaluation of 5 job-seeking behaviors by a racially and socioeconomically heterogeneous sample of 200 18-50 yr old men was predicted from 5 combinations of outcome evaluation, outcome expectancy, and respponse certainty. Contrary to the hypothesis, the simple sum of the evaluations of the outcomes of each behavior best predicted the directly measured evaluation. Results are discussed in terms of possible modifications of the expectancy model and the concept of uncertainty as reflected in subjective probability estimates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of employee mobility and employee performance on the allocation of rewards under conditions of constraint.

We advanced and tested a multiple-motive model of resource allocation. In this model we identified importance instrumental, social-emotional, and group maintenance goals, and asserted that rational managers will sometimes allocate reduced rewards to employees with constrained mobility. Consistent with predictions, managers allocated greater salary funds to more deserving employees: those with high competence and dedication. However, allocations also differed as a function of employee mobility. This effect was strongest among competent employees, whose membership was most desirable. Furthermore, the tendency to allocate lesser rewards to low-mobility employees was particularly pronounced under conditions of low reward availability and low labor availability. These effects were not mediated by changes in perceptions of the competence of low-mobility employees. These findings are discussed as a form of rational selective exploitation: The rational manager's need to attend to employee mobility, particularly under conditions of reward or labor constraint, may erode equity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of performance expectancy and self-focused attention on social interaction.

Investigated the impact of performance expectancies and self-focused attention on social performance in mixed-sex dyads of 48 undergraduate men with self-reported moderate social anxiety on a modified Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Ss were divided into 2 groups on the basis of their high or low performance expectancies. Ss were asked to respond to several self-report questionnaires before and after making a telephone call lasting 4–5 min to a female confederate for the purpose of getting acquainted. Results show that half of the Ss in each expectancy group performed in the presence of a self-focusing stimulus (video-camera). When anxiety level was controlled for, focus of attention alone had a very limited effect on performance. Expectancy had a significant influence on social performance, but only if Ss were self-focused. Thus confident Ss were rated by judges as more socially skilled than were doubtful Ss, but only when the camera was present. The interaction between these variables parallels previous research by C. S. Carver et al (see record 1980-32489-001) and Carver and M. F. Scheier (see record 1980-25774-001) and supports the self-regulation model of Carver and Scheier (1983). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Scalar expectancy theory and choice between delayed rewards.

In this article scalar expectancy theory is applied to variable and fixed delays to reward. It is assumed that all delays are represented in memory with scalar variance and that subjects choose between alternatives by sampling from the memory distributions associated with each and choosing the smaller delay. This simple scheme is shown to entail four common findings in the choice literature: (a) approximate matching of choice ratios to reward ratios (the matching law) when both alternatives are associated with variable delays scheduled with constant probability; (b) undermatching, in which choice is closer to indifference than matching, when both alternatives are variable but scheduled with uniform distributions; (c) overmatching, in which choice is more extreme than matching, when both alternatives are fixed delays; and (d) preference for variable delays scheduled with a constant probability over fixed delays. Overmatching and Weber's law are illustrated in experiments using the time-left procedure (Gibbon & Church, 1981). The preference for variable delay is demonstrated in this procedure, followed by study of a unique variable schedule of delays for which the theoretical account predicts, and the data confirm, the elimination of the preference for variability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Scalar expectancy theory and peak-interval timing in humans.

The properties of the internal clock, temporal memory, and decision processes used to time short durations were investigated. The peak-interval procedure was used to evaluate the timing of 8-, 12-, and 21-s intervals, and analyses were conducted on the mean response functions and on individual trials. A distractor task prevented counting, and visual feedback on accuracy and precision was provided after each trial. Mean response distributions were (a) centered at the appropriate real-time criteria, (b) highly symmetrical, and (c) scalar in their variability. Analysis of individual trials indicated more memory variability relative to response threshold variability. Taken together, these results demonstrate that humans show the same qualitative timing properties that other animals do, but with some quantitative differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of task-goal attributes in employee performance.

Many studies have demonstrated the relatively successful performance implications of formalized goal-setting programs in organizations. However, these findings typically do not identify the specific factors behind such techniques that are largely responsible for their success. Toward this end, research relating to 6 factor analytically derived attributes of employees' task goals is reviewed to ascertain which attributes are more consistently related to performance. The 6 task-goal attributes are goal specificity, participation in goal setting, feedback, peer competition, goal difficulty, and goal acceptance. Although goal specificity and goal acceptance were found to be most consistently related to performance, several intervening variables emerged that tended to affect significantly the impact of certain attributes on performance. Findings are discussed within a motivational framework. It is argued, based on the data, that performance under goal-setting conditions is a function of at least 3 important variables: the nature of the task goals, additional situational-environmental factors, and individual differences. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulating subjective expectancy through feedback: A laboratory study of the expectancy–performance relationship.

Investigated the form of the expectancy–performance relationship in a laboratory study of the performance of 132 undergraduates on a simple clerical task. As feedback after each of 8 trials, Ss were told that their performance was better, worse, or borderline. Ss recorded their subjective expectancies before each trial. Over all Ss, feedback condition had no impact on performance; but when 39 Ss whose reported expectancy did not match their assigned feedback were eliminated, a strong expectancy–performance relationship emerged. Ss having intermediate expectancy outperformed those whose expectancy was low or high. Examination of the nonbelievers supported the mediating role of cognitive variables in deciding how hard to work at this task. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Different fits satisfy different needs: Linking person-environment fit to employee commitment and performance using self-determination theory.

Integrating and expanding upon the person-environment fit (PE fit) and the self-determination theory literatures, the authors hypothesized and tested a model in which the satisfaction of the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence partially mediated the relations between different types of perceived PE fit (i.e., person-organization fit, person-group fit, and job demands-abilities fit) with employee affective organizational commitment and overall job performance. Data from 163 full-time working employees and their supervisors were collected across 3 time periods. Results indicate that different types of PE fit predicted different types of psychological need satisfaction and that psychological need satisfaction predicted affective commitment and performance. Further, person-organization fit and demands-abilities fit also evidenced direct effects on employee affective commitment. These results begin to explicate the processes through which different types of PE fit relate to employee attitudes and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of effort-performance expectancy to performance in goal-setting experiments.

Explored the relationship between effort–performance expectancy and task performance in goal-setting research. A review indicates that the literature in this area is highly inadequate, failing to distinguish between the expectancy–performance relation within as compared to between assigned goal conditions. Data from 2 recent experiments by the present author (see PA, Vols 68:360 and 69:11929) were reanalyzed through hierarchical multiple regression of performance on both goal level and expectancy, measured as a subjective probability of success. Ss in each experiment (86 and 58 undergraduates, respectively) performed repeated trials of a creativity task under different assigned goals. The reanalyses suggest that both goal levels and expectancy made independent contributions to variance in performance. Potential strategies for increasing performance by raising both goal levels and expectancies simultaneously are briefly discussed. New ways of conceptualizing expectancy and valence in goal-setting research are presented. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inducement of expectancy and set of subjects as determinants of subjects' responses in experimenter expectancy research.

Describes an experiment in which 18 undergraduate Es tested 216 undergraduate Ss on a simple motor performance task under 3 conditions of induced expectancy in which (a) the hypothesis was simply told to the Es, (b) the principal investigator role-played great concern about the outcome, or (c) Es were asked to manipulate actively Ss' responses. Ss were assigned to 3 conditions of evaluation apprehension. The method of randomization allowed for a check on the effects of early-testing vs. late-testing of Ss. When the Es were simply told about the hypothesis of changes in response rates across time, no expectancy effects were noted. When the principal investigator showed concern about the outcome, a significant Expectancy * Evaluation Apprehension interaction effect was obtained across the 6 trials of the task. When the Es attempted actively to manipulate results, effects opposite to their expectancies were observed. An analysis of tape-recordings of the experimental sessions revealed that intentional-inducement Es spoke more than other Es. Results indicate that a minimum of both E outcome concern and S performance concern must be present for the mediation of an expectancy. It is postulated that the reversed expectancy effects for Ss tested by intentional-inducement Es might have been due to Ss reacting against strong cues transmitted by the Es. (French summary) (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of social learning theory to employee self-management of attendance.

Training in self-management was given to 20 unionized state government employees to increase their attendance at the work site. Analyses of variance revealed that compared to a control condition (n?=?20), training in self-regulatory skills taught employees how to manage personal and social obstacles to job attendance, and it raised their perceived self-efficacy that they could exercise influence over their behavior. Consequently, employee attendance was significantly higher in the training than in the control group. The higher the perceived self-efficacy, the better the subsequent job attendance. These data were significant at the .05 level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The broader perspective of expectancy research: Comment on Corcoran and Parker.

Comments on the article by K. J. Corcoran and P. S. Parker (see record 1990-21412-001) and provides 4 examples of how the issues they raise fit within the emerging field of alcohol expectancy research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)