Between-subjects expectancy theory research: A statistical review of studies predicting effort and performance.

A large number of between-Ss expectancy theory studies have correlated measures of employee motivation (force) to perform with measures of effort and performance. The results of these studies vary considerably. A statistical review of the studies was conducted to determine the extent to which the variance explained (the dependent variable) was a function of various characteristics of the effort and performance and of the force-to-perform measures (the independent variables). There were 160 observations, derived from 32 studies. With the use of multiple regression analysis it was found that variance explained in these studies was greater when (a) self-report or quantitative measures of effort and performance were used rather than evaluations of these variables by someone other than the S; (b) 10–25 outcomes were included in the force measure rather than a greater or smaller number of outcomes; (c) outcome valence was numerically scaled with positive numbers only, and the scale values were described in terms of desirability rather than importance; and (d) the force measure contained either no assessment of expectancy or an assessment that confounded expectancy and instrumentality. These variables accounted for 42% of the variance in the results obtained in the studies reviewed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological pitfalls in attributional research.

Points out a number of methodological errors in attributional research. They include failure of the causal manipulation, insufficient sampling of causal alternatives, inaccurate classification of causes on various dimensions, prediction of expectancy of success rather than expectancy change, use of preference as an indicator of affect, insufficient representation of affects, and the use of dependent variables, such as exam performance, that provide inappropriate testing grounds for attribution theory. Some of these errors are documented with simple demonstration experiments. In addition, methodological suggestions are offered. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem as moderator of the relationship between expectancies and job performance.

Examined the implication of A. K. Korman's 1970 consistency hypothesis for predictions of work behavior, derived from L. Porter and E. Lawler's expectancy model, and evaluated the feasibility of moderating the expectancy-performance relationship with relevant variables. 367 male and female managerial-level employees were subgrouped by self-esteem scores (Ghiselli's Self-Assurance Scale), and correlations between expectancies and job performance were computed. 16 of 22 correlations for the high-self-esteem groups were higher. However, only 5 of the differences were significant, thereby providing equivocal support for the consistency hypothesis. Results indicate that moderator variables may be relevant to predictions of performance with expectancy measures. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pessimistic self-preoccupation, performance deficits, and depression.

Conducted 3 studies to test a model of the cognitive performance deficits shown in depression. The model proposes that such deficits occur as an interaction of expectancy and focus of attention variables, that is, in the presence of both low expectancy of success and high self-focus. In Study 1 (a pilot study), 11 depressed Ss (DSs) and 16 nondepressed Ss (NSs) were selected from a large pool of undergraduate students who were administered the Beck Depression Inventory. Results indicate that DSs evidenced poorer anagram performance, greater self-focus, and lower pretask expectancies than did NSs. Study 2, conducted with 60 Ss drawn from the Study 1 S pool, showed that NSs evidenced performance deficits only when both expectancy was lowered and self-focus was increased. Data from the 59 Ss (also selected from the Study 1 S pool) in Study 3 suggest that DSs' performance deficits were overcome either by lowering self-focus or by raising expectancy. Discussed are discrepancies between self-report and performance data; the relevance of these studies to the test anxiety literature; the need to integrate literature concerning the effects of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem on performance; and how the interactive roles of positive expectancy and focus of attention may be related to effective coping in a variety of situations. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of alternative compensation systems on pay valence and instrumentality perceptions.

Tested the hypothesis that the attractiveness of pay (valence) and perceptions about the linkage between performance and pay would be higher among incentive-paid employees than among employees paid by time worked. Results obtained on 273 male and female production employees of a consumer goods firm generally support the hypothesis. Type of pay system accounted for 3% of the variance in valence and for 40% of the variance in instrumentality perceptions after 5 personal variables (pay level, age, sex, marital status, and tenure) were controlled. Implications of the results for designing pay systems and for future research on expectancy theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational determinants of job performance.

Studied V. Vroom's expectancy theory model in relation to work performance. 138 incentive workers employed in a steel fabricating plant participated in the study. The data indicate that the total expectancy model is a valid indicator of job performance, although the variances explained by the various parts of the theory were low. Several operational problems in defining the basic measures used in testing Vroom's theory are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of effort-performance expectancy to performance in goal-setting experiments.

Explored the relationship between effort–performance expectancy and task performance in goal-setting research. A review indicates that the literature in this area is highly inadequate, failing to distinguish between the expectancy–performance relation within as compared to between assigned goal conditions. Data from 2 recent experiments by the present author (see PA, Vols 68:360 and 69:11929) were reanalyzed through hierarchical multiple regression of performance on both goal level and expectancy, measured as a subjective probability of success. Ss in each experiment (86 and 58 undergraduates, respectively) performed repeated trials of a creativity task under different assigned goals. The reanalyses suggest that both goal levels and expectancy made independent contributions to variance in performance. Potential strategies for increasing performance by raising both goal levels and expectancies simultaneously are briefly discussed. New ways of conceptualizing expectancy and valence in goal-setting research are presented. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vroom's expectancy models and work-related criteria: A meta-analysis.

This meta-analysis integrates the correlations of 77 studies on V. H. Vroom's (1964) original expectancy models and work-related criteria. Correlations referring to predictions with the models and the single components—valence, instrumentality, and expectancy—were included in relation to 5 types of criterion variables: performance, effort, intention, preference, and choice. Within-subjects correlations and between-subjects correlations were included separately. Overall, the average correlations were somewhat lower than reported in previous narrative reviews. In certain categories, moderators pertaining to the measurement of the concepts were analyzed with a hierarchical linear model, but these moderators did not explain heterogeneity. The results show a differentiated overview: the use of the correlational material for the validity of expectancy theory is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expectancy statements on academic performance of high- and low-ability college students.

Notes that expectancy theory holds that performance is a multiplicative function of ability and motivation-motivation being determined by individual expectations and perceptions of a situation. The role of expectations in determining academic performance was examined in a 2 (ability levels) * 2 (high-expectancy vs control groups) * 4 (test period) design. Ss were 56 undergraduates. A significant main effect due to ability and a significant interaction of ability, expectancy, and test period were found. High expectancy produced slight performance increments for all 4 test periods for high-ability Ss. High expectancy in low-ability groups resulted in higher performance than control groups for the 1st 2 test periods but lower performance for the last 2 test periods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of perceived group success-failure on motivational beliefs and attitudes: A causal model.

Two models describing the theoretical relationship among the constructs of perceived group success–failure, individual and collective levels of job-specific efficacy and outcome expectancy, satisfaction, and organizational commitment were developed. Model 1 proposed that the causal relationship between group success–failure and subsequent attitudinal variables (satisfaction and organizational commitment) is completely mediated by efficacy and outcome expectancy variables. Model 2 proposed a direct causal link from perceived group success–failure to the attitudinal variables and omitted questionable causal paths from personal efficacy and collective outcome expectancy to the attitudinal variables. The competing models were subjected to structural equation path model analysis. The 2nd model produced an adequate fit between theory and data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mood-regulation expectancies as determinants of dysphoria in college students.

Predictors of coping styles, depression, and somatic symptoms in college students were examined. In previous research, the use of active and avoidant coping strategies was predicted by stress, family support, self-confidence, and easygoing disposition. This study found that the expectancy to be able to alter one's mood state added significantly to the prediction of coping. Mood-regulation expectancies also predicted dysphoria and somatic symptoms, even with the effects of coping behavior and other variables partialed out. Consistent with response expectancy theory of I. Kirsch (see PA, Vol 73:13702; see also 1990), these data indicate that besides affecting mood indirectly through their impact on coping behavior, expectancies can directly alter dysphoric moods. However, when the effects of expectancy were statistically controlled, active coping was positively associated with dysphoria, which suggests that coping strategies may not be effective unless they are believed in. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulating subjective expectancy through feedback: A laboratory study of the expectancy–performance relationship.

Investigated the form of the expectancy–performance relationship in a laboratory study of the performance of 132 undergraduates on a simple clerical task. As feedback after each of 8 trials, Ss were told that their performance was better, worse, or borderline. Ss recorded their subjective expectancies before each trial. Over all Ss, feedback condition had no impact on performance; but when 39 Ss whose reported expectancy did not match their assigned feedback were eliminated, a strong expectancy–performance relationship emerged. Ss having intermediate expectancy outperformed those whose expectancy was low or high. Examination of the nonbelievers supported the mediating role of cognitive variables in deciding how hard to work at this task. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are causal attributions causal? A path analysis of the cognitive model of achievement motivation.

Tested the causal assumptions of B. Weiner's (1972, 1974, 1977) cognitive reinterpretation of the traditional theory of achievement motivation. Ss were 206 college students varying in resultant achievement motivation who experienced feelings of failure in a course test and chose to take the exam a second time under a mastery learning system. After feedback on first test performance, Ss made attributions for their initial failure, indicated degree of shame, and rated their expectancy for success on the second test opportunity. Treatment of this system of nonmanipulated variables by path analysis techniques provided little support for the contention that variations in expectancy and retest performance depend on attributions made for a previous failure. Affect depends in part on internal attributions, but in a direction opposite to predictions. An alternative interpretation of the role of cognitive attributions in the achievement process is explored. (63 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal inferences in motivation research: A reinterpretation of results from panel studies.

Presents a secondary analysis of the data reported in 3 previous studies (E. E. Lawler, 1968; E. E. Lawler and J. L. Suttle, 1973; J. Sheridan et al, 1975) on the causal relationships between an expectancy construct of motivation and job performance. Corrected cross-lagged correlations indicate that the previous statistical inferences of causality may have been artifact of varying measurement reliability and that the observed relationships were spurious. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An individual-differences interpretation of the conflicting predictions generated by equity and expectancy theory.

The predictions and findings engendered by J. S. Adams's (1965) theory of equity are contrary to hypotheses deducible from expectancy theory for conditions of piece-rate overpayment. Suggested as the origin of the opposite predictions of equity theory and expectancy theory are the philosophical views of altruism and hedonism, respectively. In order to test the hypothesis that degree of moral development is a moderator of the equity phenomenon, 40 undergraduates were hired for a part-time job and assigned to simulated employment conditions. Support was obtained for anticipated differences in relationships such that increases in individual moral maturity were associated with conformity to equity theory's performance predictions for an overpayment condition (i.e., moral maturity was more inversely related to quantity of performance and most positively related to quality of performance in an overpayment condition relative to an equitable payment condition). Results support the hypothesis. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group size.

This paper reviews 31 empirical studies of small groups in which the major independent variable, group size, was related to several classes of dependent variables: group performance, distribution of participation, the nature of interaction, group organization, member performance, conformity and consensus, and member satisfaction. Many of these variables were found to be significantly affected by group size, but methodological shortcomings characterizing this group of studies preclude the assertion of broad generalizations. Several dependable and nondependable intervening variables are suggested which may help to account for many of the observed effects. Conclusions are: group size is an important variable which should be taken into account in any theory of group behavior, and future research on group size should proceed more systematically than in the past. (46 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies and the outcome of a career development intervention.

Investigated 2 hypotheses regarding course outcome expectancies of students: (a) Expectancies assessed by E. E. Lawler's (1973) theory are better predictors of outcomes than the more frequently used global ratings of expectancies; and (b) the full Lawler expectancy model is a better predictor of outcome than its component parts. Outcome measures included appropriateness of (determined by the Vocational Preference Inventory), and attitudes toward, educational and vocational choices as well as career exploration behavior. Ss were 85 undergraduates enrolled in an academic course designed to help students make a career choice. The Lawler model of expectancy was not found to be a better predictor of outcome than were the other measures of expectancy. Expectancy–outcome relationships were strongest for attitudinal outcomes and weakest for the career-exploration behaviors. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of internal-external control to work motivation and performance in an expectancy model.

Conducted a study of 80 officer and 127 enlisted Naval personnel to investigate the hypotheses that internality (perception of much control) is positively related to (a) the concept of instrumentality from expectancy theory, (b) work motivation as measured by ratings and by expectancy theory measures, (c) job performance as measured by ratings, and (d) rank. These hypotheses were confirmed at or beyond the .05 significance level. A multitrait-multirater matrix showed convergent but no discriminant validity for ratings by supervisors, peers, and the Ss themselves on the Ss' job effort and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirical modeling of an alcohol expectancy memory network using multidimensional scaling.

Risk-related antecedent variables can be linked to later alcohol consumption by memory processes, and alcohol expectancies may be one relevant memory content. To advance research in this area, it would be useful to apply current memory models such as semantic network theory to explain drinking decision processes. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to empirically model a preliminary alcohol expectancy semantic network, from which a theoretical account of drinking decision making was generated. Subanalyses showed how individuals with differing alcohol consumption histories may have had different association pathways within the expectancy network. These pathways may have in turn influenced future drinking levels and behaviors while the person was under the influence of alcohol. All individuals associated positive/prosocial effects with drinking, but heavier drinkers indicated arousing effects as their highest probability associates, whereas light drinkers expected sedation. An important early step in this MDS modeling process is the determination of iso-meaning expectancy adjective groups, which correspond to theoretical network nodes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social and behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption and expectancy: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis on 34 studies that investigated the effects of alcohol consumption and expectancy within the balanced-placebo design. Preliminary results indicated that both alcohol and expectancy had significant but heterogeneous effects on behavior. Subsequent analyses were conducted to determine the factors responsible for the heterogeneity of effects. At the highest level of analysis, alcohol expectancy had strong effects on relatively deviant social behaviors and minimal effects on nonsocial behaviors. Alcohol consumption showed the opposite pattern of effects. The principal effects associated with alcohol expectancy involved increased alcohol consumption and increased sexual arousal in response to erotic stimuli. On the other hand, alcohol consumption led to significant impairment of information processing and motor performance, induced a specific set of physical sensations, resulted in general improvements of mood, and tended to increase aggression. Across all studies it was observed that alcohol consumption and expectancy interacted no more frequently than would be expected by chance. A list of the studies used in the meta-analysis is appended. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)