Self-advocacy and self-esteem.

Explored the utility of treating self-esteem as an attitude that might be vulnerable to the same kinds of experimental manipulations usually directed at more traditional, less consequential attitudinal issues. Within an attitudinal advocacy paradigm, 109 undergraduates wrote 3 essays either about their personality attributes or about social propositions. Half the Ss writing on each of these topics were told to advocate a positive position (i.e., self-laudatory or proposition supporting) in their essays. The remaining Ss, although induced to advocate positive positions, were led to believe that they could elect to write negative (self-deprecatory or issue-opposing) essays. As anticipated, Ss who wrote the self-laudatory essays subsequently rated themselves more favorably than did Ss who wrote in support of social propositions. The latter Ss showed a corresponding advocacy effect with regard to the social proposition that they had espoused. The manipulation of perceived choice did not influence the magnitude of the advocacy effect. The results are regarded as encouraging with respect to the application of laboratory-derived attitude change procedures to issues of high personal relevance and clinical importance. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treatment of female sexual dysfunction through symbolic modeling.

Presents an evaluation of treatment programs for women suffering from debilitating sexual anxiety. Attitudinal and behavioral indices of sexual adjustment and sexual anxiety, including a card sort, a sexual semantic differential, and the Bantler Heterosexual Behavior Hierarchy, were obtained from 22 21–39 yr old inorgasmic women to assess effects of individual and group graduated symbolic modeling through videotapes, with concurrent behavioral tasks as treatment procedures. All Ss had reported severe anxiety that precluded sexual enjoyment or activity. 16 Ss were randomly assigned to 2 groups receiving either individual or group treatment, which consisted of relaxation training followed by viewing 45 videotaped vignettes depicting graduated sexual behaviors. Five sessions were held twice weekly. The other Ss were subjected to identical measurement without treatment. Results show that significant decreases in anxiety and increases in behavioral and attitudinal measures were evidenced for both treatment groups; however, a trend toward greater improvement was observed for those receiving group treatment. Improvement remained stable through a 1-yr follow-up. Control Ss showed no improvement and trends toward deterioration. The treatment regimen appeared to produce positive changes in attitudinal, behavioral, and anxiety indices simultaneously. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of public and private self-consciousness on the public expression of personal beliefs.

Examined the joint effects of private and public self-consciousness (SC) on attitudinal consistency. 113 male undergraduates (categorized as high and low private and high and low public SC) reported their own attitudes toward punishment. Later, each S was asked to write an essay in which he restated his attitude. Immediately prior to writing the essay, S learned that he would also be discussing his opinion with either a partner who held an attitude opposite to his own or a partner whose attitude was unknown. As predicted, the attitudes expressed in the essays of high public SC Ss were more moderate than those expressed by low public SC Ss. One effect of this moderation strategy was to lower the correlation between privately held and publicly expressed beliefs among Ss high in public SC. In contrast, attitudinal consistency was substantial among Ss who were low in public and high in private SC. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microcounseling versus human relations training: Relative effectiveness with undergraduate trainees.

Randomly assigned 24 undergraduates to 1 of 2 counselor training systems. 12 human relations training Ss received training in R. R. Carkhuff's 7 core counselor conditions. 12 microcounseling Ss were trained in the use of attending behavior, minimal activity responses, verbal following behavior, open inquiry, and reflection of feeling. Pre- and posttraining interviews with standard clients were audiotaped for each S. Trainees were assessed on empathy and on 3 categories of counselor communication derived from the microcounseling training content. Compared to no-training control groups, all experimental Ss significantly improved on both sets of training criteria. However, the microcounseling Ss gained significantly more on empathy than did the human relations training Ss. Differences in the instructional techniques of the 2 systems are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of consciousness-raising groups on measures of feminism, self-esteem, and social desirability.

34 female undergraduates in 2 consciousness-raising groups were objectively assessed to determine whether changes relating to self-reported profeminist attitudes and behaviors and relating to self-esteem and social desirability would occur. 22 Ss were randomly assigned to either a 16-hr marathon group format or a 2-hr, 8-wk time-spaced group format. 12 additional Ss who took objective measures at the same time as 1 of the 2 groups acted as no-treatment controls. All experimental Ss significantly shifted toward more self-reported profeminist attitudes and behaviors both at posttesting and at follow-up. Two personality measures did not reveal any lasting changes. When compared with each other, Ss in the 2 time formats did not evidence any significant differences. When compared with control Ss, time-spaced Ss reported significantly more profeminist behavioral changes and an increase in self-esteem. Marathon Ss were significantly different from controls on a profeminist attitude measure (Attitudes Toward Women Scale). The purpose for which consciousness-raising groups have been formed was empirically supported by desired changes reported by Ss in relation to more profeminist attitudes and behaviors. Whether participation in consciousness-raising groups produces increases in self-esteem and decreases in the need for social approval is in need of further assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Congruity theory and linear models of attitude change.

Evaluated C. E. Osgood and P. H. Tannenbaum's (see record 1955-08361-001) congruity model of attitude change, a regression model derived from the Osgood and Tannenbaum model, and D. R. Heise's (see record 1969-08323-001) 3 general linear models of attitude change, using data obtained from 208 undergraduates. 104 Ss rated 8 3-word (subject, verb, object) sentences 1st, and then rated the individual words. The other Ss rated the individual words 1st. The mean ratings for the 2 groups were compared to obtain the attitude change for each element, and the models were used to predict the change which resulted from the combination of the words into a sentence. Sex differences were found in mean attitudinal evaluations, and the inclusion of higher-order interaction terms increased the predictability of attitude ratings for females more than for males. Heise's Model III was the best predictor of attitude change, followed by his Model II and the regression model derived from the Osgood and Tannenbaum model. The Osgood and Tannenbaum model gave poor prediction of the mean attitudinal changes obtained. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are (some) reports of attitude strength context dependent?

Assessed the impact of subjective experiences on judgment of attitude strength. 60 undergraduate Ss (median age 19 yrs) generated either 3 or 7 arguments that either supported. (for some Ss) or countered (for other Ss) their attitude toward doctor-assisted suicide, and subsequently indicated the strength of their attitude. Ss reported that their attitude was more important, intense, and certain after having generated 3 rather than 7 pro-attitudinal (or 7 rather than 3 counter attitudinal) arguments, suggesting that attitude strength is not always a stable feature of an attitude. Implications for models of attitude strength are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitude accessibility following a self-perception process.

Two experiments with 170 undergraduates investigated the accessibility of attitudes from memory following self-inference from behavior. It is noted that self-perception processes have been postulated to occur only to the extent that initial attitudes are weak. Exp I examined the consequence for attitude accessibility of reviewing and considering previously performed religious behaviors that were recent and primarily unmanded vs distant in time and manded in nature. Exp II involved the performance of a new behavior that was either required or freely chosen. In each case, control Ss either did not review prior behaviors or did not perform a new behavior. Results show that in both experiments, attitude accessibility, as measured by the latency of response to attitudinal inquiries, was enhanced by the consideration or performance of unmanded behavior, but not by manded behavior. The relevance of this finding to issues regarding attitude–behavior consistency and attitudinal persistence is discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Agreement, attraction, and self-esteem.

Explored the role of increased self-esteem in mediating the relationship between attitudinal agreement and interpersonal attraction by creating conditions known to produce differential attraction and then testing for corresponding changes in self-esteem. 280 undergraduates were given a questionnaire measuring attitudes and self-esteem and were then exposed to a confederate student who (a) held either similar or dissimilar attitudes on a variety of current issues; and (b) had given them either a positive, a negative, or no personal evaluation. Posttreatment confederate evaluations and measures of self-esteem indicate that although the attraction manipulation was highly successful, no support was found for the notion that increased self-esteem was even a concomitant, let alone a determinant, of attraction. The only reliable posttreatment increase in self-esteem came from Ss who had been negatively evaluated, and appeared to be defensive in character. In addition, Ss receiving similar attitudes plus positive personal evaluations liked the stranger more, and those receiving dissimilar attitudes plus negative evaluations liked the stranger less, than did Ss who received the attitude similarity-dissimilarity manipulation only. These latter results suggest that current models of attraction in which the proportion of positive elements is the crucial factor should be reformulated. (French summary) (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudinal outcomes of the Life Planning Workshop.

Examined the impact of the Life Planning Workshop (i.e., a developmental outreach program designed to assist individuals with personal, social, and vocational planning for the future) on attitudes toward future planning and the self-actualizing attitudes of feeling reactivity and self-regard. It was hypothesized that (a) workshop participants would demonstrate significant gains in all 3 areas when compared to controls and that these gains would endure over a follow-up period and (b) Ss who participated in small groups generating high levels of verbal interaction would show greater attitudinal change than members of groups producing low levels of interaction. An original instrument and 2 subscales of the Personal Orientation Inventory were administered to 42 17–34 yr old Ss randomly assigned to either a pre–post or post–follow-up condition. Tape recordings were made for analysis of verbal interaction. Results show significantly higher means for experimental Ss on measures of positive attitudes toward future planning and feeling reactivity; these gains endured over a mean follow-up period of 3 wks. No significant differences in self-regard were found, nor were there significant attitudinal changes associated with verbal interaction level. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A study of rehabilitation counselors: Locus of control and attitudes toward the poor.

Studied the interrelationships among locus of control, attitudes toward the poor, attitudes toward the supervisor, job satisfaction, and the performance ratings of 90 practicing rehabilitation counselors (mean age 36 yrs). Ss were surveyed with a battery of attitude questionnaires, including Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale and the MacDonald Poverty Scale. Results indicate that Ss with an internal orientation had more positive attitudes toward the poor than Ss with an external orientation. It was further observed that internally oriented Ss received higher performance ratings than the externally oriented. Internal orientation was associated with higher job morale, greater job satisfaction, and more positive attitudes toward supervisors. Implications of the findings are discussed in the context of client-counselor relationships and of the consequence that these data may have in counselor preservice and inservice training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of attitudinal, cognitive, and situational variables on recall of biased communications.

Investigated the attitudinal congeniality hypothesis (the assumption that people learn material congenial to their attitudes more easily than uncongenial material) in a 2 by 2 design: instruction set (learn vs judge) by essay bias (pro vs con), with attitude toward student activism as the focal ex post facto variable. 120 college students served as Ss. Verbal skills, quantitative skills, and overlap of prior knowledge structure with essay content were treated as covariates. A number of variables related to quality of essay content and demand characteristics were controlled and/or measured to achieve the maximum possible control over recall variance. Results indicate that greater recall was associated with greater intellectual skills, greater overlap of prior knowledge, more positive attitudes toward the experimental setting, instructions to learn the essay, and the attitudinal congeniality effect (indexed by the Attitude by Essay Bias interaction). Interpretation is based on the effect of each variable on the perceived utility of the essay's content. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal study of attitude development in pre-, early, and later adolescent samples.

Examined changes in attitude over a 1-yr period in 382 pre-, early, and later adolescent Ss. Attitudes toward self (i.e., self-esteem—Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory), toward events and one's ability to control them (i.e., locus of control—Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale), and toward achievement (i.e., achievement motivation—Prestatie Motivatie Test) were examined. Results do not support the hypothesis that early adolescence is a time of dramatic change in important attitudes and perceptions. Instead, the amount of attitudinal change evidenced by Ss at each age level varied with the kind of attitude being assessed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitude similarity, topic importance, and psychotherapeutic attraction.

Studied the effect of attitude similarity and topic importance on attraction in a natural setting by exposing 75 prison inmates, incarcerated for public intoxication, to varying attitudes of a psychotherapist prior to hearing him in a taped therapy session. The therapist's attitudes were either similar or dissimilar to the S's and pertained to either alcoholism (important) or general (unimportant) issues. Attraction was assessed using the Client's Personal Reaction Questionnaire developed by J. D. Ashby et al. A group of control Ss received no attitudinal information. Ss were more attracted to the therapist after receiving alcohol items regardless of degree of similarity expressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjustment of adolescents to chronic disability.

Investigated the relationship between adolescents' adjustment to a chronic disability and 8 demographic and attitudinal variables. Adjustment was defined as the total positive score on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Ss were 59 12–18 yr old females with idiopathic scoliosis and their mothers. Analysis identified the following 4 variables, in decreasing order, that correlated with the adjustment of adolescents to scoliosis: (a) adolescents' tendency toward the container-isolator end of B. A. Wright's (1960) theoretical continuum of coping responses to a physical disability as measured by an attitude toward disability test, (b) a dimension of maternal attitude toward disability as measured by a disability factor scale, (c) a dependency factor of maternal attitude toward females and persons with scoliosis as measured by a factor analyzed 70-item semantic differential scale, and (d) a maternal high self-concept factor from the semantic differential scale. Ss did not differ significantly from peers on the adjustment measure, and implications for treatment and rehabilitation are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The counsellor trainee as client: Client process as a predictor of counselling skill acquisition.

This study was based on C. R. Rogers's (1951) proposition that openness to and expressiveness of inner experiencing relates to the individual's ability to be sensitive to and acceptant of others. 34 participants in a human relations training program were first interviewed by experienced therapists. The Ss' capacities to process themselves as clients were assessed by use of an experiencing scale developed by E. T. Gendlin and E. M. Tomlinson (1961), and a process measure of this scale was used as a predictor of counseling skill acquisition during the program. It was found that there was no relationship between the predictor and skill acquisition during the initial phase of the training program. However, between the middle and final phase of the program, the High Mode Experiencing Ss sustained their facilitative communication despite a shift of training focus to action-oriented skills, whereas the facilitative communication of the Low Mode Experiencing Ss deteriorated during this period. It is concluded that the capacity to process themselves as clients may have little bearing on whether or not trainees can achieve low levels of facilitative functioning when these skills are explicitly addressed. However, this variable may have considerable bearing on the extent to which trainees can maintain the empathic attitude while extending their total range of functioning. (French abstract) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Hawthorne effect in reverse: Trainee orientation for the hard-core unemployed woman.

Utilized role-playing, group-problem-solving sessions to make the work adaptation of 72 formerly unemployed black females more satisfying. It was postulated that Ss would show greater positive change in attitudes toward self accompanied by positive changes in attitudes toward work as a function of their reference group involvement and their perceived improvement at reflexive identification in the role-playing episodes. Contrary to prediction, the Hawthorne effect boomeranged. Ss did evince greater positive changes in attitude toward self, but rather than the accompanying positive shift in attitudes toward work posited, these Ss were apparently presented with the support necessary to raise both their levels of aspiration and expectation and subsequently leave the work environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assumed similarity and opinion certainty.

To examine the effect of projected attitude similarity on certainty of own attitude, 2 samples of male undergraduates (N?=?40), commuters and fraternity members, indicated their own attitudinal position on 8 issues and then served in 1 of 4 opinion projection conditions: estimating the positions of those in their in-group, a student out-group, an irrelevant out-group (old veterans), or a no-target group. They then indicated their certainty about their previously expressed positions. In both studies, in-group targets elicited the most assumed similarity, and the irrelevant out-group elicited the least. Certainty of S's own position was greater after estimation of the positions of in-group Ss than after estimation of the opinions of relevant or irrelevant out-group Ss, or when given no opportunity to project. These certainty effects were due primarily to those issues Ss considered important. Additional analyses provided empirical support for 2 orthogonal components of assumed similarity, item content similarity and elevation similarity. The importance of a strong group identity as a basis for the increment in certainty conferred by assumed in-group similarity is discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)