Effect of distance on verbal productivity.

Conducted an analog study with 30 female undergraduates to determine whether physical distance between female interviewees and a female interviewer affected verbal productivity when interviewees discussed academic, social, and personal topics. Based on E. T. Hall's categories for interpersonal distance and social interaction, interviews were conducted at 2 (.6 m), 5 (1.5 m), and 9 ft (2.7 m) (close, intermediate, and far, respectively). Results indicate a Topic * Distance interaction; that is, Ss talked longer about personal topics at an intermediate distance than they did when seated close to or far away from the interviewer. Discussion includes possible theoretical explanations and limitations of the study with implications for the initial interview. Attention is given to Hall's model of proxemic behavior and social interaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of operant level, interview with experimenter, and awareness upon verbal conditioning of chronic schizophrenics.

The present research attempted to (a) cross-validate N. D. Vestre's (1961, 1965) findings that medium-operant-level pronouns can be conditioned by "good" in a chronic schizophrenic population, (b) test whether or not high-operant-level pronouns can be conditioned by "good" in a chronic schizophrenic population, and (c) compare the conditionability of high-operant-level with that of medium-operant-level pronouns. It was hypothesized that schizophrenics would be more conditionable following a brief, friendly, personal interview than in the absence of any preconditioning interview. It was expected that awareness of the response-reinforcement contingency would favor conditioning. Both the operant level and interview with experimenter variables were investigated to see whether or not either differentially affected (a) the number of aware Ss and (b) the performance of aware Ss. "Good" functioned as a reinforcer for about 1/4 of the Ss in this study. The most important factor contributing to performance was awareness of the response-reinforcement contingency. Also, reinforcement tended to be more effective when Ss had no (instead of a S-min) preexperimental interview with E. Medium-operant-level pronouns were conditionable, and results of conditionability comparisons between high- and medium-preference pronouns depended upon how performance was measured. The negligible conditionability of high-preference pronouns was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of delayed auditory feedback on process and reactive schizophrenic subjects.

A group of 20 male process schizophrenic, 20 male reactive schizophrenic, and 20 normal Ss read a passage aloud under delayed auditory feedback. S grouping, length of hospitalization, age, education, reading speed, and audiometric variables were controlled. It was theorized that normal Ss would be most affected by delayed auditory feedback, followed by reactive and then process Ss. Results do not support this hypothesis; after covarying for control reading time, the effect of diagnostic group disappeared. However, post hoc analysis revealed a subgroup of process patients more influenced by delayed auditory feedback than all other Ss. They were older, had shorter hospitalization, more education, lower control reading times, and higher process-reactive scores than the remaining process Ss. These patients are thought to constitute an "intermediate" schizophrenic group in their social organization and psychotic symptomatology. Thus, it is speculated that delayed auditory feedback could tap interactions between sensory and social variables in certain subsets of the schizophrenic population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linguistic immediacy of schizophrenics in different proxemic conditions.

The linguistic immediacy of 32 schizophrenic and 32 nonschizophrenic psychiatric patients was observed as Ss sat in 1 of 4 proxemic positions during a short interview. Positions varied in terms of distance between patients and interviewer (near vs far) and direction of the interviewer's eye gaze (gazing continuously vs never looking at patients). Results indicate that the immediacy of schizophrenics' verbal communication varies as a function of patient–interviewer distance and orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of culture, language, and sex on conversational distance.

Assessed interpersonal distance between seated conversants from 3 cultures varying in purported contact norms. 19 male and 23 female Japanese, 18 male and 16 female Venezuelan, and 16 male and 15 female American undergraduates had a 5-min conversation on a common topic with a same-sex, same-nationality confederate. Three hypotheses were tested: (a) When speaking their native languages, Japanese will sit farther apart than Venezuelans, with Americans at an intermediate distance; (b) females will sit closer than males; and (c) foreign Ss, when speaking English, will more closely approximate American conversational distance than when speaking their native languages. The hypotheses were generally confirmed and support E. T. Hall's (1966) distinction between cultures in terms of their proxemic manifestations of social contact norms. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of A and B therapists with schizophrenics and neurotics: A referral study.

A basic assumption in the therapist A-B variable literature has been that A therapists are more effective with schizophrenic patients and that B therapists are more effective with neurotic patients. This has not been adequately demonstrated among experienced, practicing therapists since the original work of J. C. Whitehorn and B. J. Betz (1954, 1957, 1960) and D. McNair et al (1962). The current study attempted such a demonstration. Assuming a close relationship between a therapist's effectiveness and his/her reputation among professional colleagues, the study asked each of 60 psychologists to "refer" each of 6 case vignettes (2 schizophrenic, 2 neurotic, and 2 "other") to the colleague he/she believed would be most effective with that case. 41 Ss (20 As and 21 Bs, as determined by the Schiffman et al A-B scale reported by D. E. Kemp and J. H. Stephens, 1972) completed the task. A therapists received more schizophrenic than neurotic referrals, whereas B therapists received more neurotic than schizophrenic referrals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Size estimation, perceptual recognition, and cardiac rate response in acute paranoid and nonparanoid schizophrenics.

Studied perceptual response styles of 8 paranoid and 8 nonparanoid schizophrenics in a VA hospital using size estimation and perceptual recognition tasks. Eight alcoholic patients were used as controls. Only acute, actively psychotic, unmedicated schizophrenics were included. Heart rate responses were monitored during the performance of the tasks. Psychological task performance and concomitant physiological responses were analyzed and integrated. The size estimation results replicate earlier findings. During the perceptual recognition task, the paranoid Ss showed a unique "jump to conclusions" response strategy. Early responding and response rigidity was not found to be specific to paranoid schizophrenics. All schizophrenic Ss showed more large-magnitude heart rate response during both tasks. The relationship between perceptual responses and physiological responses differed among the groups. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social, emotional, and intellectual behavior at school among children at high risk for schizophrenia.

Four classroom teachers rated the school behavior of 44 12–17 yr olds of schizophrenic parents and 70 Ss of normal parents as part of an ongoing high-risk study. The ratings were made by teachers using the Pupil Rating Form and the Hahnemann High School Behavior Rating Scale. Ss of schizophrenic parents showed greater interpersonal disharmony, less scholastic motivation, more emotional instability, and lower intelligence than the control Ss, but the difference in introversion was not significant. Two of the 4 Ss with 2 schizophrenic parents had extremely low ratings for scholastic motivation, harmony, emotional stability, and intelligence and a 3rd was rated extremely low on emotional stability, but none of them was extremely introverted. On the basis of the results and a preliminary examination of intermediate outcomes (early hospitalization or psychological treatment after the initial school assessments), it is concluded that disharmony, emotional instability, and low intelligence are the early markers for vulnerability to schizophrenia worthy of most attention. The surprising absence of introverted behavior among Ss of schizophrenic parents indicates that introversion—when it is observed—may best be construed not as a static typology of preschizophrenic character but as a dynamic phase in a process of coping and retreat that precedes schizophrenic breakdown, sometimes by many years. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental factors related to schizophrenia in psychophysiologically labile high-risk males.

Research indicates that certain parameters of electrodermal functioning are related to schizophrenia and risk for schizophrenia. The present study investigated childhood environmental factors in 2 subgroups of high-risk 9–20 yr old males (offspring of schizophrenic mothers): those who showed patterns of electrodermal lability in childhood and later became schizophrenic (9 Ss), and a matched subgroup who showed similar patterns of electrodermal functioning but did not become schizophrenic (9 Ss). The variables examined were parental absence, institutionalization of the child, and quality of the home and neighborhood. The schizophrenic group had experienced significantly more paternal absence during the 2nd yr of life. Schizophrenic Ss also experienced significantly more childhood institutionalization, particularly in the 1st and 6th–20th yrs of life. The quality of home and neighborhood and maternal absence did not distinguish the 2 groups. Findings are interpreted as indicating the importance of paternal presence in ameliorating the disruptive effects of the schizophrenic mother on vulnerable male offspring. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Word associations of schizophrenics and alcoholics as a function of strength of associative distracter.

L. J. Chapman's "response bias" theory of word association behavior (see record 1959-10697-001) predicts a hierarchy of responses in schizophrenic associations, whereas W. E. Broen's 1968 "response interference" theory does not. The existence of a "true hierarchy," (i.e., at least 3 ordered levels of responsiveness) was explored in 30 male chronic schizophrenics and 30 male alcoholic controls under conditions of high-, medium-, and low-associative distraction. Schizophrenics manifested significantly more associative errors at successive levels of associative distraction, and their error curve almost precisely approximated a straight-line function. Results support the notion of hierarchical responding central to Chapman's theory as well as independently replicating earlier studies of schizophrenic word association behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual attraction to clients: The human therapist and the (sometimes) inhuman training system.

585 Division 42 (Psychologists in Private Practice) members responded to a 17-item questionnaire designed to gather initial information about the attraction therapists feel for their clients. 286 Ss were aged 45 yrs and under, while 299 Ss were aged 46 yrs and over. Results show that 508 Ss were attracted to clients; significantly more males than females reported such an attraction. Younger Ss were significantly more attracted to clients than were the older Ss. 104 Ss (primarily male) had considered sexual involvement, 91 more than once. Approximately 37 Ss had acted out sexually with clients. 488 Ss indicated feeling uncomfortable, guilty, or anxious about their attraction to clients. 55% of Ss indicated that they had received no education or training about sexual attraction to clients. (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenia: Effects of inheritance and rearing on reaction time.

Studied both manual and verbal reaction time in 4 selected groups of adult Ss (N = 258) in an attempt to uncover hereditary and environmental influences on the reaction time of Ss whose parents do or do not have schizophrenic disorders. The groups included (a) adoptive offspring of schizophrenic parents (adoptive index); (b) adoptive offspring of nonschizophrenic parents, but whose adoptive parents had a psychiatric record of schizophrenic disorder (cross-foster); (c) adoptive offspring of nonschizophrenic parents (adoptive control); and (d) offspring of schizophrenic parents who were reared by their biological parents (nonadoptees). Analysis of variance was used to assess the effects of rearing by a schizophrenic parent, a genetic background for schizophrenia, and interaction between rearing and genetic background. Groups opposed for genetic background for schizophrenia were not different in reaction time performance, while groups opposed for rearing by a schizophrenic parent were significantly so. Mean reaction time was slower in groups reared by a schizophrenic parent than in those reared by a nonschizophrenic parent. There was no significant interaction between rearing and genetic background for reaction time performance. (French summary) (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of 3- to 4-year-olds assessed at home and their interactions in preschool.

Assessed the characteristics of 24 male and 21 female 42-mo-olds in the UK using a semistructured maternal interview concerning behavior at home. Behavior in preschool was recorded by direct observation. The procedures were repeated for 21 of the males and 16 of the females 8 mo later. Results show that many of the characteristics assessed at home were related in a predictable way to behavior in preschool. For example, shy Ss interacted less with peers at 42 mo of age. At 50 mo of age they initiated fewer interactions with adults, but shy males played interactively with peers. Assertive Ss were involved in more interactions and controlled others at 42 mo of age. These Ss showed more interactive play, hostile interactions, and crying at age 50 mo. The characteristics Active, Moody, and Assertive produced at least twice as many significant correlations at 50 mo as at 42 mo of age. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test-taking sets and the performance of schizophrenics on laboratory tests.

Administered an abbreviated MMPI, a word association test, and a reaction time test under 2 test conditions (neutral and mental illness) to 3 schizophrenic groups-28 acute and 28 chronic Ss from open wards, and 28 chronic Ss from closed wards. Chronic Ss from open wards were the only group to perform differentially on the tests under the 2 conditions, presenting themselves as "healthier" on the MMPI and giving more common responses on the word association test in the mental illness than in the neutral condition. It is concluded that schizophrenic patients likely to be included in research may perform differently on tests given under different conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Degrees of client comfort as a function of dyadic interaction distance.

27 male undergraduates were interviewed by 9 male counseling students using an intake interview. Each student counselor saw 3 Ss, one in each of 3 counselor-client distance conditions: 18, 30, and 48 in. An analysis of variance revealed significant differences between conditions in the degree of comfort reported by Ss on evaluative scales of a posttest semantic differential. As a further indicator of Ss' degree of comfort, the semantic differential scales were compared to observers' ratings on a behavior checklist and found to have a positive correlation. Ss' degree of comfort scores ranged from highest for 30 in to lowest for 18 in, with intermediate scores at 48 in. Results suggest that degree of client comfort is optimized at specific interaction distances during an intake interview. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Desk arrangement effects on pupil classroom behavior.

Observed 8 Ss in each of 2 5th-grade, 2 5th–6th grade, and 2 6th-grade classrooms, using a time-sampling method, to determine the effect of desk arrangements. One classroom at each grade level experienced all 3 desk arrangements (rows, clusters, circle), while the other classroom was assigned to 1 of the 3 arrangements. Ss observed were males and females of high and low ability and high and low classroom interaction. Results confirm the hypotheses that Ss seated in circles engage in significantly more on-task behavior than those in rows and that Ss seated in clusters engage in more on-task behavior than those in rows but less than those in circles. Ss' behavior varied significantly across student types, as was expected. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of biological and social motivation on schizophrenic reaction time.

Reaction times of schizophrenic and normal Ss were determined under instructions to respond as fast as possible to a buzzer signal. Half of the Ss were retested immediately under the same conditions, while the other half were shocked on the responding finger simultaneously with the buzzer. Schizophrenics' RTs improved significantly under shock conditions. Disturbances in schizophrenic RT are "partially accounted for by defective social motivation and… a biological deficit may be involved in the reactions of more chronic schizophrenics." 21 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcoholic subjects' attentional bias in the processing of alcohol-related words.

Studied attentional bias for alcohol-related (AR) words in 13 alcoholic men and 17 matched control Ss with a modified version of the Stroop Color and Word Test that included color-interfering, AR, and neutral words. Results indicate that (1) alcoholic Ss responded more slowly to all word categories than control Ss, (2) both alcoholic and control Ss responded more slowly to color-interfering words than to neutral words, and (3) only alcoholic Ss responded more slowly to AR words than to neutral words. Findings indicate that when the alcoholic Ss were confronted with AR stimuli, cognitive processes presumably began that made it impossible for them to ignore the meaning of the words and their resources were allocated to the content of the alcohol stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

SCHIZOPHRENIC APPERCEPTION AS A FUNCTION OF HUNGER.

"This experiment confirmed a prediction that schizophrenic Ss, when hungry, would not show in their apperceptive response pattern the normally expected increase of content pertaining to food… This failure was interpreted as a defect of "psychological homeostasis," similar to homeostatic failures previously demonstrated in schizophrenic Ss by studies in which the emphases have been physiological or psychophysiological." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of presession information on perception of the therapist and receptivity to influence in a psychotherapy analogue.

Investigated the idea that presession information can change Ss' evaluations and perceptions of a therapy session. 112 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups and given different information with regard to a therapist's warmth and experience. Following structuring, all Ss listened to the same tape of a therapy session. Measures obtained following the tape revealed that Ss structured warm or experienced, as opposed to cold or inexperienced, were more attracted to the therapist, more receptive to his influence, evaluated his work more positively, were more willing to meet with the therapist, and more persuaded by his communications. The findings support the notion that premeeting information can affect the therapy relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)