Anisotropy of Retained Austenite Stability during Transformation to Martensite in a TRIP‐Assisted Steel

Retained austenite as a key constituent in final microstructure plays an important role in TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steels. The volume fraction, carbon concentration, size, and morphology of this phase are the well‐known parameters which effects on the rate of transformation of retained austenite to martensite and the properties of steel, are studied by many researchers. Of the transformation of retained austenite to martensite under strain in a TRIP steel is studied in this paper. The experimental results show that the transformation rate of retained, austenite with similar characteristics, to martensite in differently processed TRIP steel samples, exhibits an anisotropic behavior. This phenomenon implies a kind of variant selection of martensitic reaction of retained austenite under strain and is explained by ferrite texture developed in steel.     

On the influence of interactions between phases on the mechanical stability of retained austenite in transformation-induced plasticity multiphase steels

The mechanical stability of dispersed retained austenite, i.e., the resistance of this austenite to mechanically induced martensitic transformation, was characterized at room temperature on two steels which differed by their silicon content. The steels had been heat treated in such a way that each specimen presented the same initial volume fraction of austenite and the same austenite grain size. Nevertheless, depending on the specimen, the retained austenite contained different amounts of carbon and was surrounded by different phases. Measurements of the variation of the volume fraction of untransformed austenite as a function of uniaxial plastic strain revealed that, besides the carbon content of retained austenite, the strength of the other phases surrounding austenite grains also influences the austenite resistance to martensitic transformation. The presence of thermal martensite together with the silicon solid-solution strengthening of the intercritical ferrite matrix can “shield” austenite from the externally applied load. As a consequence, the increase of the mechanical stability of retained austenite is not solely related to the decrease of the M _s temperature induced by carbon enrichment.     

An acoustic emission study of martensitic transformation of retained austenite in intercritically annealed HSLA steels

The martensitic transformation of retained austenite particles in an intercritically annealed high-strength low-alloy steel has been studied using the acoustic emission technique. It was found that the stability of austenite particles was mainly dependent on the particle size and to a lesser extent on the enrichment of austenite by carbon and manganese. We have demonstrated that a substantial fraction of the retained austenite particles in the as-annealed condition already contains martensite embryos which can initiate martensitic transformation during cooling below 300 K. The martensite embryos are believed to form from a suitable group of dislocations. Those austenite particles which do not contain such dislocations will not transform by supercooling alone. The particle size stabilization effect is viewed as a decreasing probability of finding dislocations in a particle with decreasing particle volume. Plastic deformation can bring about the transformation by introducing dislocations in the austenite particles. The transformation of the retained austenite particles is shown to enhance the ductility of the HSLA steel.     

常化后冷却工艺对1600MPa级超高强钢组织性能的影响

为改善高强度钢的塑性和韧性,对中碳低合金马氏体高强度钢分别采用常化后空冷＋回火和常化后控冷＋回火工艺,研究常化后冷却工艺对钢中残余奥氏体及力学性能的影响.采用扫描电镜获得钢的组织形态,利用X射线衍射和电子背散射衍射技术分析钢中残余奥氏体的体积分数、形貌和分布.发现两种工艺下均得到板条马氏体＋残余奥氏体组织,残余奥氏体均匀分布在板条之间,随工艺参数不同,其体积分数在3%~10%变化.常化后加速冷却能显著细化马氏体板条,提高钢的屈服强度和抗拉强度100 MPa以上,冲击功下降4 J.残余奥氏体的体积分数随常化控冷终冷温度的升高呈现先升高后降低的变化,常化后的控制冷却也可以作为进一步改善马氏体类型钢组织和性能的方法     

Formation of Reversed Austenite in High Temperature Tempering Process and its Effect on Mechanical Properties of Cr15 Super Martensitic Stainless Steel Alloyed with Copper

Formation mechanism of the reversed austenite of Cr15 super martensitic stainless steel (SMSS) alloyed with copper after high temperature tempering was investigated by means of thermo‐calc software, transmission electron microscope (TEM), and X‐ray diffraction (XRD). The mechanical properties of the SMSS were also tested. The experimental results show that the reversed austenite with low dislocation density is formed at high temperature tempering processing. The transformation of the martensite to reversed austenite is a diffused phase transformation, and the growth of the reversed austenite is closely related to the diffusion process of Ni. The bulk reversed austenite with large amount of stacking faults is formed with the increase of the tempering temperature. The volume fraction of reversed austenite increases at first and then decreases with increasing tempering temperature, and the maximum amount of the reversed austenite is obtained at 650°C. The reversed austenite is unstable at the tempering temperature above 650°C and the martensitic phase transformation will occur at the following cooling process. The mechanical properties of Cr15 super martensitic stainless steel are significantly influenced by the volume fraction of reversed austenite.     

Effect of Free Surface on the Stability of Individual Retained Austenite Grains in a Duplex Stainless Steel

The present work explored the effect of free surface on the stability of individual austenite grains in a duplex stainless steel. It was found that martensitic transformation took place automatically in the retained austenite grain when a free surface was introduced. This is due to the fact that the martensite nucleation energy barrier can be lowered to a thermally surmountable value as the strain energy induced by martensitic transformation is largely lowered when the matrix constraints were removed.     

基于动态相变的热轧Nb-V-Ti微合金化TRIP钢组织及性能

通过单轴热压缩试验,结合扫描电镜以及X射线衍射技术,研究了动态相变前奥氏体晶粒状态对基于动态相变的热轧Nb-V-Ti微合金化TRIP钢复相组织状态及力学性能的影响.与动态相变前奥氏体晶粒为等轴状条件下相比,动态相变前奥氏体晶粒为拉长状条件下,动态相变得到的铁素体转变量较大,最终复相组织中贝氏体含量较少且团径较小,马氏体含量较少,但对残余奥氏体含量及其含碳量影响不明显.与不含微合金化元素的基于动态相变的热轧TRIP钢相比,Nb-V-Ti微合金化TRIP钢的屈服强度和抗拉强度明显提高,而延伸率有所降低.     

Analysis of the Strain‐Induced Martensitic Transformation of Retained Austenite in Cold Rolled Micro‐Alloyed TRIP Steel

The stability of retained austenite and the kinetics of the strain‐induced martensitic transformation in micro‐alloyed TRIP‐aided steel were obtained from interrupted tensile tests and saturation magnetization measurements. Tensile tests with single specimens and at variable temperature were carried out to determine the influence of the micro‐alloying on the M_s^σ temperature of the retained austenite. Although model calculations show that the addition of the micro‐alloying elements influences a number of stabilizing factors, the results indicate that the stability of retained austenite in the micro‐alloyed TRIP‐aided steels is not significantly influenced by the micro‐alloying. The kinetics of the strain‐induced martensitic transformation was also not significantly influenced by addition of the micro‐alloying elements. The addition of micro‐alloying elements slows down the autocatalytic propagation of the strain‐induced martensite due to the increase of the yield strength of retained austenite. The lower uniform elongation of micro‐alloyed TRIP‐aided steel is very likely due to the presence of numerous precipitates in the microstructure and the pronounced ferrite grain size refinement.     

1.6 GPa级中碳高强贝氏体钢残余奥氏体调控机理

 为了研究中碳高强贝氏体钢中的残余奥氏体体积分数在不同等温情况下的变化规律,通过X射线衍射试验、热模拟试验和扫描电子显微镜观察等,分析了等温淬火条件对中碳高强贝氏体钢中残余奥氏体体积分数和组织的影响。结果表明,最终残余奥氏体的体积分数受贝氏体相变和马氏体相变的共同影响。贝氏体相变量决定了未转变奥氏体的体积分数及其化学稳定性,从而影响随后的马氏体相变量及最终残余奥氏体体积分数。此外,随着相变温度的升高,开始由于贝氏体相变量逐渐减少,残余奥氏体体积分数先增加(300~350 ℃),随后由于马氏体相变量增加,残余奥氏体体积分数减少(350~400 ℃)。     

Structure and properties of a microduplex maraging steel

A simple two-step thermal processing technique was devised to impart a microduplex structure in a high strength 250 grade commercial maraging steel. A martensite grain size of approximately 1 μm was obtained with interspersed islands of retained austenite whose volume fraction and mechanical stability could be controlled by varying the thermal processing conditions. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the microduplex structure were compared to those of the alloy in the maraged, martensitic condition. Due to the presence of the austenite phase, the microduplex structure showed a much smaller temperature and strain rate dependence of deformation than the martensitic structure. A remarkable increase in uniform elongation was observed below theM _d temperature of retained austenite. The microduplex structure did not show any significant advantage in fracture toughness over the martensitic structure when compared at similar strength levels. By suitably adjusting austenitic stability a deformation-induced phase transformation (TRIP) of the retained austenite in the microduplex structure could be made to occur; however, the transformation did not lead to any evident increase in toughness. The micro-duplex structure exhibited a slight improvement in fracture toughness at high strain rate in contrast to the martensitic structure in which the rate effect significantly reduced the toughness.     

Development of high strength low alloy TRIP‐aided steels with annealed martensite matrix

Formable high‐strength low‐alloy TRIP‐aided sheet steels with annealed martensite matrix or TRIP‐aided annealed martensitic steel were developed for automotive applications. The steels possessed a large amount of plate‐like retained austenite along annealed martensite lath boundary, the stability of which against the strain‐induced transformation was higher than that of the conventional TRIP‐aided dual‐phase steel with polygonal ferrite matrix. In a tensile strength range between 600 and 1000 MPa, the TRIP‐aided annealed martensitic steels exhibited superior large elongation and reduction of area. In addition, the steels possessed the same excellent stretch‐flangeability and bendability as TRIP‐aided bainitic steel with bainitic ferrite matrix. These properties were discussed by matrix structure, a strength ratio of second phase to matrix, retained austenite stability, internal stress in matrix and so on.     

等温压缩对高强度汽车钢WHT1300HF的马氏体相变及微观组织的影响

通过等温形变研究了形变参数(形变温度、形变速率、形变量)对高强度汽车钢WHT1300HF的微观组织转变和形貌的影响规律。研究结果表明:增加奥氏体等温形变量,有利于铁素体的缺陷形核,促进了形变奥氏体向铁素体转变;奥氏体的形变强化导致马氏体相变阻力增大,马氏体相变开始温度(Ms)下降,细小晶粒数量和小角度晶界数量增多;增加奥氏体等温形变(40%)速率能同时促进马氏体和铁素体相变,但马氏体体积分数和小角度晶界数量减少,细小晶粒数量略有提高;降低等温形变温度加剧奥氏体的形变强化,导致Ms温度下降,马氏体体积分数、小角度晶界比例减少,细小晶粒数量增多,铁素体含量明显增加。     

Structure and properties of a microduplex maraging steel

A simple two-step thermal processing technique was devised to impart a microduplex structure in a high strength 250 grade commercial maraging steel. A martensite grain size of approximately 1μm was obtained with interspersed islands of retained austenite whose volume fraction and mechanical stability could be controlled by varying the thermal processing conditions. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the microduplex structure were compared to those of the alloy in the maraged, martensitic condition. Due to the presence of the austenite phase, the microduplex structure showed a much smaller temperature and strain rate dependence of deformation than the martensitic structure. A remarkable increase in uniform elongation was observed below theM _d temperature of retained austenite. The microduplex structure did not show any significant advantage in fracture toughness over the martensitic structure when compared at similar strength levels. By suitably adjusting austenitic stability a deformation-induced phase transformation (TRIP) of the retained austenite in the microduplex structure could be made to occur; however, the transformation did not lead to any evident increase in toughness. The microduplex structure exhibited a slight improvement in fracture toughness at high strain rate in contrast to the martensitic structure in which the rate effect significantly reduced the toughness.     

Development of Multiphase Microstructure with Bainite, Martensite, and Retained Austenite in a Co-Containing Steel Through Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) Treatment

The quenching and partitioning (Q&P) treatment of steel aims to produce a higher fraction of retained austenite by carbon partitioning from supersaturated martensite. Q&P studies done so far, relies on the basic concept of suppression of carbide formation by the addition of Si and/or Al. In the present study Q&P treatment is performed on a steel containing 0.32 C, 1.78 Mn, 0.64 Si, 1.75 Al, and 1.20 Co (all wt pct). A combination of 0.64 Si and 1.75 Al is chosen to suppress the carbide precipitation and therefore, to achieve carbon partitioning after quenching. Addition of Co along with Al is expected to accelerate the bainite transformation during Q&P treatment by increasing the driving force for transformation. The final aim is to develop a multiphase microstructure containing bainite, martensite, and the retained austenite and to study the effect of processing parameters (especially, quenching temperature and homogenization time) on the fraction and stability of retained austenite. A higher fraction of retained austenite (~13 pct) has indeed been achieved by Q&P treatment, compared to that obtained after direct-quenching (2.7 pct) or isothermal bainitic transformation (9.7 pct). Carbon partitioning during martensitic and bainitic transformations increased the stability of retained austenite.     

The Effects of Strain Rate and Temperature on the Deformation Behavior of Cold‐Rolled TRIP800 Steel

In the present study, the influences of temperature and strain rate on the deformation behavior of cold‐rolled TRIP800 steel were investigated. Microstructural observation and tensile tests were performed and volume fractions of retained austenite were measured at various temperatures and strain rates. The results reveal that both temperature and strain rate affect the volume fractions of retained austenite that transforms into martensite. The strain‐induced transformation of retained austenite is retarded with increasing temperature and the retained austenite becomes more stable against straining. The amount of retained austenite that transforms into martensite is not influenced significantly by strain rate. The variation in mechanical properties with temperature and strain rate was related to the effects of dynamic strain aging, tempering of banite, high temperature softening, and the volume fractions of retained austenite.     

Conversion Model for the Martensitic Transformation of Banded Austenite in a Ferrite Matrix

A model is proposed for the calculation of the volume fraction of martensite formed during the transformation of banded austenite in a hot-rolled AISI 430 stainless steel. The proposed model includes the strain resulting from the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion of austenite and ferrite and the effect of alloying elements on the lattice parameters. The model was verified by comparing the calculated values of the transformation strain of martensite with the experimental measurements.     

A multi-scale grained microstructure of the surface nanocrystallized 304 stainless steel sheets after warm-rolling

An ultrafine grained microstructure was obtained for 304 stainless steel(304SS)sheets by using surface nanocrystallization and warm-rolling.The microstructure and mechanical properties were determined by X-ray diffraction(XRD),transmission electron microscope(TEM)and a test on microhardness.Experimental results were shown that the microstructure was featured by a continuous distribution from the nanocrystalline on the surface to micro-grains in the center,in which the volume fraction of the micro-sized grains is about 40% in the surface layer.This multi-scale grained microstructure was composed of austenite and martensite phases with a gradient increasing volume fraction of austenite from the surface to the centre.The microhardness of the resultant steel was higher than 150% of that as received,due to the refined grains and strain-induced martensitic transformation.The hardness distribution was consistent with the microstructural variation,suggesting a good combination of high strength and improved ductility.     

Three-dimensional computational-cell modeling of the micromechanics of the martensitic transformation in transformation-induced-plasticity-assisted multiphase steels

A three-dimensional finite-element microstructural cell model involving an inclusion of retained austenite embedded within a ferrite grain, which is surrounded by a homogeneous matrix representing the behavior of a transformation-induced-plasticity (TRIP)-assisted multiphase steel, was developed in order to address the micromechanics of the martensitic transformation in small isolated austenite grains. The transformation of a single martensite plate is simulated after various amounts of prior plastic deformation under different in-plane loading conditions. The values of the mechanical driving force and of the elastic and plastic accommodation energies associated with the transformation are calculated as a function of the externally applied loading conditions. The mechanical driving force and the total accommodation energy are of the same order of magnitude. The mechanical driving force depends upon the stress state and is the highest for plane-strain conditions. The total accommodation energy is almost independent of the stress state. It is affected by the amount of plastic straining prior to transformation and is very much dependent on the level of the shear component of the transformation strain. The results of this study provide guidelines for the development of realistic stress-state-dependent transformation evolution laws for TRIP-assisted multiphase steels.     

Influence of the Initial Microstructure on the Reverse Transformation Kinetics and Microstructural Evolution in Transformation-Induced Plasticity–Assisted Steel

The reverse transformation behavior upon heating to intercritical temperature was studied in Fe-0.21C-2.2Mn-1.5Si (wt pct) alloy with three initial microstructures. One is the cold-rolled (CR) structure and two others are martensite having different fractions of retained austenite. The CR structure exhibits slower reverse transformation kinetics than martensite due to the lesser population of potent nucleation sites and coarse cementite particles. The film type of retained austenite at the martensite lath boundary contributes to the earlier start of the reverse transformation, because it can proceed as the growth of pre-existing retained austenite, which makes the nucleation process less critical. Besides, the growth of interlath austenite plays an essential role in the evolution of fine lath-type reverse-transformed microstructure, which was difficult to obtain from similar initial microstructures of martensite having negligible fraction of interlath austenite.     

A Kinetics Model for Martensite Transformation in Plain Carbon and Low-Alloyed Steels

An empirical martensite kinetics model is proposed that both captures the sigmodial transformation behavior for alloy steels and remains computationally efficient. The model improves on the Koistinen and Marburger model and the van Bohemen and Sietsma model with a function that better represents the transformation rate, especially during the early stages. When compared with existing models, the proposed model exhibits better predictions of volume fraction of martensite. The proposed model also predicts various other transformation properties accurately, such as M₉₀ temperatures and retained austenite.