Effect of reduced pressure,vibration and orientation to simulate high altitude testing of liquid pharmaceutical glass and plastic bottles

This paper discusses the impact of high‐altitude shipments of glass and plastic bottles on package integrity. High altitudes are encountered when trucks travel over mountain passes and when cargo and feeder aircraft transport packages in non‐pressurized or partially pressurized cargo holds. This is the second research study conducted on liquid product shipments. The first was performed on liquid hazardous material combination packaging. The testing of pharmaceutical packaging is critical since the integrity of the product may be compromised during shipping and handling. Current shipping tests performed in labs do not account for simultaneous pressure changes and vibration together. This study shows that packages currently being used for shipments of liquid pharmaceuticals that perform well when tested to existing American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) and International Standard Organization (ISO) shipping tests are often inadequate, and can result in a significant number of leakers. Testing under combined vibration and pressure is necessary to insure integrity. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and Analysis of Vehicle Vibration for Delivering Packages in Small‐Sized and Medium‐Sized Trucks and Automobiles

In distribution, packaged products are subjected to the variation in vibration levels from transport vehicles that vary in frequency and acceleration while moving to their destinations. This vibration may negatively affect the product or packaging. This study measured and analysed vibration levels in vehicles commonly used to transport packages in the last leg of the package delivery service that is used by single‐parcel carriers. Using data recorders, we monitored vertical, lateral and longitudinal vibrations over 75 h of travel time in five different types of small and medium package delivery vehicles. The study presents these data as power density (PD) spectra and compares it with previously measured PD vibration levels in commercial long‐haul interstate tractor‐trailer truck shipments. Data were collected in the USA and Thailand. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and analysis of the next‐day air shipping environment for mid‐sized and lightweight packages for DHL,FedEx and United Parcel Service

The past decade has shown a great increase in the number of direct to consumer shipments of products and packages. As a result, parcel delivery companies like DHL, FedEx, UPS and the USPS have strengthened their presence in air transport. Using cargo planes, they route packages from various destinations to large airport hubs, where they sort millions of packages and ship them to their destinations the next morning. There is a continuous need to quantify what happens to these packages as they are handled both manually during collection and delivery and on large high‐speed conveying and sortation equipment at hubs. This study measured and compared shock and drop events for these carriers during next‐day and 2‐day shipping service. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Packaging for high‐pressure treatments in the food industry

This study highlights some important aspects of the package, such as packaging materials suitable for high‐pressure treatments, package properties (barriers and flexibility) and package integrity. Six different types of package were tested. They consist of multilayer plastic packages (PA/PE), where thickness, permeability and stress varied at yield point and at breakage. They achieve a good heat seal and good protection from the pressure medium (water) surrounding them. Experiments were carried out at 200, 350 and 500 MPa for 30 min at ambient temperature, comparing the performance of pressurized multilayer plastic packages with untreated packages. Different simulants (water, 3% acetic acid, 15% ethyl alcohol and olive oil), in contact with the packages, were used to demonstrate the good integrity between package and foodstuff during treatment and shelf‐life. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and Analysis of Physical and Climatic Distribution Environment for Air Package Shipment

There has been a significant growth in the air package shipment business, which involves the multi‐modal movement of a package in transportation and material handling systems that encompass conveyors, carts, trucks, delivery vans and aircrafts of various sizes and shapes. This study was aimed at establishing the ‘air package shipment’ conditions experienced by packages transported by air under ‘normal conditions of transport’. Air package shipment data (temperature, humidity, pressure, shock and vibration) were collected for several domestic and international routes through instrumented packages. The collected data were supplemented by previous research to measure and quantify this multi‐modal shipping environment. This study also compared industry‐accepted American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) pre‐shipment test methods with the general requirements of package design qualification testing as outlined in 49 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 178, Subpart M. This review revealed that the design qualification testing for certain distribution‐related hazard elements is not currently representative of the normal conditions of air transport. The data gathered in this study were analysed to represent the current ‘normal conditions of transport’, i.e. beginning‐to‐end delivery of air packages. The study used the time spent by the package in each of the segments of transportation to determine a ‘single profile’ or ‘test’ that would represent the average and normal expected levels for each hazard element and would serve as the basis of a minimum level for performance testing to establish normal conditions of transport by air. The recommended test methods and levels can be easily adopted by existing distribution packaging testing labs globally. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and analysis of ‘small’ packages in next‐day air shipments

Packaged goods are shipped globally using various means of transportation. Over the past two decades, there has been a continuous increase in studies that measure and analyse dynamic events that occur to packages during transportation and handling. These data offer useful information to design and test packages, and provide protection from potential hazards like drops and impacts. However, none of the past studies are directed towards single packages regarded as ‘smalls’. ‘Smalls’ or small‐package product systems are defined as those with volume of less than 0.013 m³, a longest dimension of 0.356 m and a weight of 4.54 kg or less. Packages that qualify for these specifications are often mixed together in a large carrying bag and handled with other single parcel shipments. This study measured and analysed the effect of moving this category of single packages through expedited shipments in the USA. The results showed that these packages experienced as many as 27 events comprising of drops or tosses in a one‐way shipment, and a maximum of 5.01 m of near‐zero G travel distance representing long ‘tosses’. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measuring the package shipping environment in refrigerated ocean vessels

The dynamic and climatic environments inside the cargo holds of regrigerated ships carrying bananas from Central America to destinations in Europe and the United States were measured. The same environments inside individual packages of bananas were also measured for comparison. Among the variables studied were shock and vibration G-levels, temperature, humidity, and air velocity. Three different types of shipments were monitored: break-bulk, palletized, and containerized. The results show that the average G-levels are similar to those found on trailers and railcars and that the vibration levels in the packages themselves were amplified by up to as much as eight times.     

A study of the effect of pictorial markings and warning labels on handling of packages in the DHL single‐parcel environment

Over the past two decades, there has been a heavy influx in the number of direct‐to‐consumer express shipments of packaged products. As a consequence, parcel delivery companies, such as DHL, FedEx and UPS, have strengthened their presence in air transport. This study measured and analysed the effect of moving single packages through air shipments in the USA using one of the newest service providers, DHL. The study also quantified the effect of placing pictorial markings and warning labels on mid‐sized and lightweight packages when using Next‐Day and 2nd Day services provided by the carrier DHL. Instrumented packages measuring 0.38 m × 0.34 m × 0.34 m and weighing 6.8 kg were shipped from Michigan to California and New York. A total of 48 trips were conducted to collect the data for this study. The results show that for the Next‐Day and 2nd Day service, packages with labels, as compared with those without labels, were subjected to approximately the same number of drops for shipment to California, and approximately 35% less drops for shipments to New York. The drop‐height data for the shipments are presented in terms of drop heights associated with the 90, 95 and 99th percentile of occurrence. Impact orientation is also discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and analysis of temperature and pressure in high altitude air shipments

This study was performed (at the request of the FAA) to measure temperature and pressure conditions observed by standard packages in the FedEx ‘Next Day Air’ network and the environmental conditions of passenger aircrafts. To measure the single parcel environment, two destinations known to be served by non‐pressurized feeder and pressurized aircrafts in the USA, San Luis Obispo, California, and Twin Falls, Idaho, were used to represent higher altitude paths. Test packages (0.30 × 0.30 × 0.30 m) containing one MadgeTech PRTemp110 recorder were shipped Priority Overnight by FedEx from East Lansing, Michigan. For 6 weeks, two test packages were shipped to each destination. To measure the passenger aircraft environment, test packages (0.14 × 0.11 × 0.06 m) were both carried in the passenger cabin and checked with luggage. Results show temperature ranges, pressure drop rates, and maximum altitudes observed from 52 flights (17 feeder aircrafts) in the FedEx environment and from eight commercial passenger flights. This study compares these results with the ASTM D6653‐01 test procedure with respect to suggested test pressure, pressure change rate, temperature, and test duration. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and Analysis of Vibration Levels in Rail Transport in Central Europe

In the last decade, with a continued change in world economic conditions and global trade, transportation of goods has continued to increase. The opening of new and existing markets requires that products and packages move through various regions of the world using available logistical equipment and networks at a faster pace. It also requires that damage be kept at a minimum while providing maximum safety to individuals. This can be achieved by properly designing packages to transportation levels that occur in the supply chain. The purpose of this research is to both measure and analyse the vibration physical forces that occur during rail transport. Rail shipments are widely used across the world, and they are an integral part of the intermodal transfer of ISO containers from ships and trucks to rail. The aim of this paper is to provide vibration levels measured for rail shipments on a major railway line in Central Europe that has not been previously published. The vibration levels that were measured in this study were compared with American Society of Testing and Materials, United States Military Standards and United Kingdom Defense Standard standards and International Safe Transit Association procedures in the form of power spectral density spectrums. A composite power spectral density spectrum is provided which can be used to simulate the measured rail vibration levels in Central Europe. Results are also compared with rail travel in other international shipments for North America and Asia. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and analysis of delivery van vibration levels to simulate package testing for parcel delivery in Hungary

In the past several decades, there continues to be an increase in both domestic and international online and catalogue shipments that requires an increase in shipments and handling of parcels by single parcel delivery companies. This study measured the vibration levels that occur in parcel delivery shipments from pickup to delivery, especially the sections involving delivery vans and small vehicles over ground road transportation in Hungary. Goods that were shipped in the regions studied almost always travel at least once by van on varying road conditions such as motorways, main, side or city roads to deliver parcels to the final destination. The aim of this paper was to provide an understanding of vibration levels that occur during van transportation that can be used to pre‐shipment test new packages to prevent damage. The measured acceleration‐time data were analyzed in terms of power spectral densities (PSDs) and presented with statistical data to provide an understanding of the variability of intensity. The separated and averaged vibration levels that were measured in this study were compared with the American Society of Testing and Materials and the International Safe Transit Association vibration profiles for pickup and delivery vehicle in the form of PSD spectrums. Based on the analyzed data of this study, PSD spectra were provided for various route conditions as well as composite spectra, which can be used to simulate the measured vibration conditions representing van shipments.     

葡萄贮运过程中跌落与振动损伤的试验分析

目的 以巨峰葡萄为试验对象,研究在贮运过程中跌落冲击机械损伤,以及振动疲劳累积对其生理品质产生的影响。方法 在现有贮运包装条件下对葡萄进行不同高度的跌落试验,得到跌落高度对葡萄力学特性的影响。在相同高度下,对葡萄进行不同包装的试验验证,得到新型减振包装对葡萄力学特性的影响,并使用模拟运输振动试验台和六度空间振动试验台进行试验,模拟实际运输路况下不同包装对葡萄生理品质的影响。结果 研究发现,新型减振包装在2种振动疲劳累积试验下,质量损失率比普通包装减少了27.07%和21.42%,表面损伤系数减少了20.11%与17.61%。结论 可为葡萄设计合理的包装方式和运输方式提供理论依据。     

Measurement and analysis of the second‐day air small and light‐weight package shipping environment within Federal Express

This study measured and analysed the parcel shipping environment within Federal Express. The package sizes and weights monitored in this study represent the ‘light‐weight’ and 'small‐size' packages within the FedEx handling system. Five packages, ranging in size from 0.18 × 0.19 × 0.13 m to 0.36 × 0.37 × 0.31 m, and weighing 1.9–2.5 kg, were shipped, both with and without warning labels with the text ‘Fragile – Handle With Care’. The shipments were done between Michigan and California or Florida using the second‐day air shipment mode. The data showed that neither the package size/weight nor the labels had any significant effect on the severity of drop heights. The highest drop height measured was 1.85 m. The data is presented in terms of drop heights associated with the 90, 95 and 99th percentile of occurrence. Impact orientation is also discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and analysis of truck transport vibration levels and damage to packaged tangerines during transit

The purpose of this study was to measure the vibration levels in commercial truck shipments in Thailand and observe the effects on packaged fruit. The study measured the vibration levels in two of the most commonly used truck types to ship packaged goods as a function of road condition and vehicle speed. The suspension type on the trailers studied was leaf‐spring. The results of damage to packaged tangerine fruit as a function of location in the payload are also presented. The data presented in this study will assist product and package designers to reduce damage in transit. The results showed that vibration levels increased with speed and as a result of road condition. Analysis of variance indicated that three controlling factors, road surface, truck speed and truck type, significantly affected (p ≤ 0.05) peak PSD, PSD* (root mean square) over the frequency range 2–5 Hz, and fruit damage. As expected, based on previous work, an increase in truck speed resulted in an increase in vibration levels and damage to packaged fruit. The laterite road condition produced the highest vibration level for a given truck and travelling speed followed by concrete highway and asphalt road conditions. Fruit damage was found to be greatest in the uppermost container for every combination of road, truck type and travelling speed, which also corresponded to the highest vibration levels recorded. The results showed that a significant amount of damage can occur on unpaved roads (laterite), while the packages are transported from farms and harvesting areas to regional truck terminals. Damage on asphalt road conditions was minimal. This paper provides an updated history of measured and quantified levels of vibration for these specific trucks and road conditions. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of a laboratory‐scale pressure differential (force/decay) system for non‐destructive leak detection of flexible and semi‐rigid packaging

This study evaluated the capabilities of a bench‐top non‐destructive pressure differential leak tester using 355 ml polyethylene terephthalate/ethylene vinyl alcohol/polypropylene (PET/EVOH/PP) trays. This evaluation was done by monitoring the equipment's force/decay responses to leaks, changes in the package headspace volume and differences in the seal strength of 986 sample trays. Leak detection evaluation was done using artificially created channel leaks (10–200 µm) in the sealing areas and pinholes (5–50 µm) in the lids of the polymeric trays. Seal strength evaluation included the ability of the equipment to identify non‐leaking but weak seals and the extent to which the pressure differential unit affected good seals during a normal test run. The results showed that the equipment had a detection limit of 40 µm for channel leaks 6 mm in length and 15 µm for pinholes. The results also showed that the pressure differential unit caused a 9% reduction in the seal strength of the tested packages. However, peel strength analysis and distribution testing showed that this reduction in seal strength did not compromise the integrity of 99% of the packages tested. Results showed that the equipment could also detect weak but non‐leaking seals that had potential to lose integrity during transportation and retail handling. The results of this study could be used to determine the capabilities and limitations of a non‐destructive pressure differential bench‐top leak testing device intended for food packaging quality control. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Measurement and Analysis of Shocks on Small Packages in the Express Shipping Environment of China

The express shipping industry in China has developed rapidly in recent years. Express shipping is dedicated to small packages. This package type, which is classified as transport package, has a high risk of product damage because of its characteristics. The design of transport packages is closely related to the shipping environment and has been studied by many researchers. However, the reference value of these research results in the context of China is questionable because the logistics environment in the country varies greatly from that abroad. This issue has been the subject of limited research attention, on which convincing research is lacking. This study measures and analyzes the representative express shipping environment in China using the careful design of a test package. Furthermore, the drop height and orientation of the testing package are analyzed to clarified the shock level on the package during shipping. The findings of this research provide a valuable reference for the optimal design of the express packages in China and for packaging performance tests in the laboratory. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of Jaw Profile on Heat Sealing Performance of Metallised Flexible Packages

Different profiles of jaws are used in the Brazilian market for heat sealing flexible materials used in food packaging by heated bar. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the jaw profile on the quality of the top and bottom heat seals of pouches made of biaxially metallized polypropylene/biaxially co-extruded polypropylene (BOPPmet/BOPPcoex) amd biaxially metallized polypropylene/low density polyethylene (BOPPmet/LDPE). These materials are traditionally used for snacks and ground coffee packages. Five jaw profiles were evaluated: one flat and four grooved, using lengthwise, crosswise at profiles 120 and 90° and inclined. The heat sealing temperature and time were optimized for the two packaging materials for all profiles. The sealing pressure was fixed at 40 lbf/in². Heat sealing quality was evaluated through visual examination, integrity, tensile strength and drop testing. All the tests were done before and after transport simulation on the packages. BOPPmet/BOPPcoex 100 g snack packages and BOPPmet/LDPE 250 g ground coffee packages were prepared under laboratory conditions. The transport simulation was done on these packages by placing them into paperboard boxes (for snacks) or kraft paper sacks (for ground coffee). The BOPPmet/BOPPcoex packages presented integrity problems for all the profiles tested. The best heat sealing, tensile strength, drop impact resistance and appearance were obtained with the crosswise 90 and 120° and inclined grooved profiles, therefore these profiles are the recommended ones for top and bottom heat sealing of snacks MOPP/met/BOPPcoex packages. The flat profile had the worst performance among the ones that were studied. Heat sealing quality was not affected by the transport simulation, for all profiles. The BOPPmet/LDPE packages did not show integrity problems. However, the transport simulation reduced the heat sealing quality for all profiles. The crosswise 120 and 90° grooved profiles showed similar performance and they are the recommended ones for BOPPmet/LDPE packaging of ground coffee or any product of similar appearance and density. The inclined, lengthwise and flat profiles are not recommended for these applications.     

Test protocol for simulating truck and rail vibration and rail impacts in shipments of automotive engine racks

A study of the truck and rail transport environments using racks containing Ford engines was conducted to quantify shock and vibration levels during shipment. Tri-axial acceleration data was collected at several locations on the floor of the vehicles and on the racks themselves to determine the severity of shock and vibration input from truck trailers and rail boxcars. Power Spectral Density plots were developed from the data collected and used to simulate truck and rail shipments on an electro-hydraulic vibration table. The results showed that the highest vibration levels in the steel racks occurred at 4 Hz in the vertical direction for truck shipments, and between 12–16 Hz for rail shipments. The vibration levels in the longitudinal and lateral directions were much lower than in the vertical direction for truck shipments. The most severe shock to a rack in rail shipments was 5.7 G peak in the longitudinal direction as a result of coupling.     

Vibration and acceleration levels of multimodal container shipping physical environment

In global supply chains, multimodal transportation plays a dominant role in worldwide shipping. The rail, truck, and vessel combination is the most commonly used mode for non‐time sensitive shipments between continents. This study focused on measuring the transportation environment effects (vibration and acceleration levels) in 40‐foot ISO container shipments using multiple modes of transport, originating in Hungary and destined for Mexico, India, and China over several weeks. The study also measured multimodal shipping routes without vessel transportation to China over Trans‐Siberian and Trans‐Manchurian railway lines. The transshipments and handling events in container hubs and terminals were separately analyzed. The results show the comparison of vibration intensity (in PSD) of different route conditions between various continents, and the possibility of acceleration levels during transshipments and handling events. The measured data show that extreme acceleration levels in vertical direction (9.37 G) occur while containers are handled in a seaport, and in lateral (4.45 G) and longitudinal (5.55 G) directions while they are transshipped by truck to rail container terminals. The rail vibration levels in Russia and China showed a lower intensity in the frequency range of 1 to 15 Hz, and higher between 15 and 200 Hz than in Europe; the lowest vibration levels occurred when the containers traveled on the sea, and truck vibration levels were very similar to previous research and ISTA protocols.     

Effects of reduced pressure and vibration on haz‐mat packages for liquids

Eleven different bottle/closure systems used to package dangerous goods for transportation by air were tested for leakage. The bottles were filled with water and subjected to the combined effects of random vibration and external pressure equivalent to an altitude of 14000ft (4267m) for up to an hour. The bottles were placed in the vertical, horizontal and inverted orientations and observed for leaks. The differences in bottle weights before and after the tests were used to quantify leakage. The results show that of the 11 package types tested, six leaked when subjected to simulation of the air transport environment. Those systems utilizing ‘stretch tape’ around the closure did not leak. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.