Five-axis tool path generation for a flat-end tool based on iso-conic partitioning

Traditionally, for the flat-end tool, due to the intertwined dependence relationship between its axis and reference point, most 5-axis tool-path generation algorithms take a decoupled two-stage strategy: first, the so-called cutter contact (CC) curves are placed on the part surface; then, for each CC curve, tool orientations are decided that will accommodate local and/or global constraints such as minimum local gouging and global collision avoidance. For the former stage, usually simplistic “offset” methods are adopted to determine the cutter contact curves, such as the iso-parametric or iso-plane method; whereas for the latter, a common practice is to assign fixed tilt and yaw angle to the tool axis regardless the local curvature information and, in the case of considering global interference, the tool orientation is decided solely based on avoiding global collision but ignoring important local machining efficiency issues. This independence between the placement of CC curves and the determination of tool orientations, as well as the rigid way in which the tilt and yaw angle get assigned, incurs many undesired problems, such as the abrupt change of tool orientations, the reduced efficiency in machining, the reduced finishing surface quality, the unnecessary dynamic loading on the machine, etc. In this paper, we present a 5-axis tool-path generation algorithm that aims at alleviating these problems and thus improving the machining efficiency and accuracy. In our algorithm, the CC curves are contour lines on the part surface that satisfy the iso-conic property — the surface normal vectors on each CC curve fall on a right small circle on the Gaussian sphere, and the tool orientations associated to a CC curve are determined by the principle of minimum tilt (also sometimes called lead) angle that seeks fastest cutting rate without local gouging. Together with an elaborate scheme for determining the step-over distance between adjacent CC curves that seeks maximum material removal, the presented algorithm offers some plausible advantages over most existing 5-axis tool-path generation algorithms, particularly in terms of reducing the angular velocity and acceleration of the rotary axes of the machine. The simulation experiments of the proposed algorithm and their comparison with a leading commercial CAM software toolbox are also provided that demonstrate the claimed advantages.     

基于UG的五轴数控机床加工仿真

目前多数五轴数控机床仿真系统,一般只提供二维的动画仿真,而且仿真系统的几何造型功能十分有限,零件和机床模型需要在其他CAD软件中进行建模,然后导人数控仿真系统。由于文件格式的转化,零件的CAD模型将会产生误差,降低了仿真精度。该文利用UGCAD／CAM软件造型功能建立五轴数控机床和零件模型,读取数控代码对机床各部件进行三维运动仿真,并对加工过程中机床运动部件之间的干涉及工件过切进行检查,建立干涉实体,为刀具轨迹的修改提供依据,同时免除了文件格式的转化产生的误差。     

A physically-based model for global collision avoidance in 5-axis point milling

Although 5-axis free form surface machining is commonly proposed in CAD/CAM software, several issues still need to be addressed and especially collision avoidance between the tool and the part. Indeed, advanced user skills are often required to define smooth tool axis orientations along the tool path in high speed machining. In the literature, the problem of collision avoidance is mainly treated as an iterative process based on local and global collision tests with a geometrical method. In this paper, an innovative method based on physical modeling is used to generate 5-axis collision-free smooth tool paths. In the proposed approach, the ball-end tool is considered as a rigid body moving in the 3D space on which repulsive forces, deriving from a scalar potential field attached to the check surfaces, and attractive forces are acting. A study of the check surface tessellation is carried out to ensure smooth variations of the tool axis orientation. The proposed algorithm is applied to open pocket parts such as an impeller to emphasize the effectiveness of this method to avoid collision.     

Generation of collision-free 5-axis tool paths using a haptic surface

An intuitive man-machine interface for generating 5-axis tool paths is described in the paper. The system is based on a 5 degree-of-freedom force feedback haptic system, which is used to interface a human with an impenetrable 3D part. In the process of feeling the object, the user ‘teaches’ a milling machine to machine a virtual 3D object. The tool path generation has two phases: recording of access directions at the surface of the object and the post-processing phase. During the recording phase, three functions are carried out simultaneously: first, a fast collision detection algorithm, using hierarchical object representation, to drive the haptic system; second, visual feedback to show the regions that have been accessed by the tool; and third, a system to capture the access directions of the tool as the user touches the object. The post-processing phase involves the use of information generated in the recording phase to generate 5-axis tool paths. First, the access directions at the surface of the part are interpolated; and second, any residual collisions are detected and eliminated. We show the results of the tool path generation for two parts. The system can help an expert user generate, correct and tweak tool paths.     

Five-axis pencil-cut planning and virtual prototyping with 5-DOF haptic interface

In this paper, techniques of 5-axis pencil-cut machining planning with a 5-DOF (degree of freedom) output haptic interface are presented. Detailed techniques of haptic rendering and tool interference avoidance are discussed for haptic-aided 5-axis pencil-cut tool path generation. Five-axis tool path planning has attracted great attention in CAD/CAM and NC machining. For efficient machining of complex surfaces, pencil-cut uses relatively smaller tools to remove the remaining material at corners or highly curved regions that are inaccessible with larger tools. As a critical problem for 5-axis pencil-cut tool path planning, the tasks of tool orientation determination and tool collision avoidance are achieved with a developed 5-DOF haptic interface. A Two-phase rendering approach is proposed for haptic rendering and force-torque feedback calculation with haptic interface. A Dexel-based volume modeling method is developed for global tool interference avoidance with surrounding components in a 5-axis machining environment. Hardware and software implementation of the haptic pencil-cut system with practical examples are also presented in this paper. The presented technique can be used for CAD/CAM, 5-axis machining planning and virtual prototyping.     

A corner-looping based tool path for pocket milling

In milling around corners, cutting resistance rises momentarily due to an increase of cutter contact length. NC tool path generation in dealing with sharp corners thus requires special consideration. This paper describes an improved NC tool path pattern for pocket milling. The basic pattern of the improved tool path is a conventional contour-parallel tool path. Bow-like tool path segments are appended to the basic tool path at the corner positions. When reaching a corner, the cutter loops around the appended tool path segments so that corner material is removed progressively in several passes. By using the corner-looping based tool path, cutter contact length can be controlled by adjusting the number of appended tool path loops. The procedures of creating the improved tool path for different corner shapes are explained. The proposed tool path generation was implemented as an add-on user function in a CAD/CAM system. Cutting tests were conducted to demonstrate and verify the significance of the proposed method.     

Tool path generation for free form surfaces using Bézier curves/surfaces

Presented in this paper is a tool path generation method for multi-axis machining of free-form surfaces using Bézier curves and surfaces. The tool path generation includes two core steps. First is the forward-step function that determines the maximum distance, called forward step, between two cutter contact (CC) points with a given tolerance. The second component is the side step function which determines the maximum distance, called side step, between two adjacent tool paths with a given scallop height. Using the Bézier curves and surfaces, we generate cutter contact (CC) points for free-form surfaces and cutter location (CL) data files for post processing. Several parts are machined using a multi-axis milling machine. As part of the validation process, the tool paths generated from Bézier curves and surfaces are analyzed to compare the machined part and the desired part.     

Computing of the actual shape of removed material for five-axis flat-end milling

This paper describes an algorithm that predicts the shape of material removed by a flat-end milling tool, and this may be used to compute machining strip width and scallop height at different positions of the tool path track. The algorithm computes swept sections, profiles which are swept by a moving tool bottom by passing through given planes. The technique is applicable for finish and semi-finish multi-axis milling strategies that use flat-end tools. For these strategies, the algorithm complexity can be reduced from computation of the 3D envelope of swept volumes to computation of plane-circle intersections. A new adaptive derivative-free method to sample tool motion provides robust means to generate intermediate tool positions. The step length is constrained by and dependent on different geometrical measures. At each point of a tool path, in the plane perpendicular to the cutting direction, the bottom profile of the swept section is an estimate of the profile of material left. By calculating the distance between part geometry and the computed profile of removed material, machining strip width and a scallop profile can be derived. These results can be used by tool path generation and validation routines to accurately determine the step-over between tool path tracks and surface quality.     

An integrated framework of tool path planning in 5-axis machining of centrifugal impeller with split blades

Centrifugal impeller is a complex part commonly used in aerospace, energy, and air-conditioning industries. Its manufacture involves multi-axis free form machining, a time consuming and error-prone process. Tool path planning is considered a critical issue in the process but still lacking of systematic solutions. This paper proposes a tool path planning framework for 5-axis machining of centrifugal impeller with split blades. It provides several CAM functions that assist the users to generate collision-free cutter motions with smooth tool orientations. First, the machining process is divided into four operations and the planning tasks of each operation are standardized. Second, the hub surfaces are properly decomposed, re-grouped, and re-parameterized to facilitate calculation of quality tool path with reduced cutter retraction and plunging. Finally, geometric algorithms are developed to automatically detect tool collisions and then correct the erroneous tool orientations. An optimization scheme is applied to minimize the total amount of tool posture changes after the correction. An impeller is machined with the NC codes generated from the framework. The result shows the effectiveness of this work in automating the tool path planning in 5-axis machining of highly intricate impeller.     

New computer vision based Snakes and Ladders algorithm for the safe trajectory of two axis CNC machines

Multi-axis machine production process optimization, automation and intelligence are the key codes of today’s scientific community. Rapid decision and intelligence are becoming more important for precise and safe virtual and real production. Multi-axis CNC production is a high speed machining process that demands less human intervention and high intelligence, to deal with any uncomfortable situation regarding collisions. Current CAM softwares as well as CNC machines are able to detect collisions but are unable to avoid these collisions automatically. This paper aims to make the CAD-CAM/CNC multi-axis safe trajectory generation process optimal, intelligent and automatic, using vision based image processing by the Snakes and Ladders game analogy. Applying the Snakes and Ladders analogy on machine virtual scene (trajectory preparation) and real scene (during production) images gives promising methodology for safe and efficient trajectory generation while avoiding collisions named Snakes and Ladders Analogy for Production Trajectory (SLAPT). Our Rectangular Enveloped Safe and Efficient Trajectory (RESET) algorithm, based on the same principle of the SLAPT methodology is also discussed in this paper. Results include some applications of algorithms on virtual and real machine scene images for the safe and optimized trajectory of tools. This paper focuses on intelligence and optimization of 2D non-functional transversal trajectories of 2-axis machines for production and preparation processes as an initial effort towards the complex safe trajectory generation process (mill-turn).     

三维动态环境下多无人机编队分布式保持控制

针对无人机编队沿参考轨迹飞行时遭遇突发障碍物而发生碰撞的问题, 提出一种可实时避障及机间避碰的分布式编队保持算法. 基于虚拟结构编队策略, 采用非线性模型预测控制(NMPC) 方法设计分布式编队控制器. 为了实现通讯延迟下的机间避碰, 采用基于不同优先级的改进避碰惩罚策略. 仿真结果表明, 所设计的分布式编队控制器能保证编队及时避开环境中的突发障碍物, 且无人机间不发生互碰, 避障后的各编队继续以原队形沿参考轨迹飞行.

     

A machining potential field approach to tool path generation for multi-axis sculptured surface machining

This paper presents a machining potential field (MPF) method to generate tool paths for multi-axis sculptured surface machining. A machining potential field is constructed by considering both the part geometry and the cutter geometry to represent the machining-oriented information on the part surface for machining planning. The largest feasible machining strip width and the optimal cutting direction at a surface point can be found on the constructed machining potential field. The tool paths can be generated by following the optimal cutting direction. Compared to the traditional iso-parametric and iso-planar path generation methods, the generated MPF multi-axis tool paths can achieve better surface finish with shorter machining time. Feasible cutter sizes and cutter orientations can also be determined by using the MPF method. The developed techniques can be used to automate the multi-axis tool path generation and to improve the machining efficiency of sculptured surface machining.     

On the effective tool path planning algorithms for sculptured surface manufacture

This paper describes the cutter path planning and cutter interference (gouging) analysis algorithms developed to generate optimal tool path for manufacturing sculptured surfaces on three axes CNC machine tools. Cutter path planning algorithm approximates the parametric curves on three dimensional surfaces by a sequence of straight line segments and generates optimal tool paths by minimizing the number of interpolation points while keeping the path deviations within the specified tolerances. Cutter interference analysis algorithm checks for the self intersection of an offset surface and determines the self-intersection curve. The tool path is then planned over the cutter contact (CC) surface after removing the CC data that lies inside the self-intersection curve. Finally, the effectiveness of these algorithms is demonstrated by implementing them in CAD/CAM system.     

Influence of tool path strategy on the cycle time of high-speed milling

This work at first look discusses the influence of the tool path strategy on the cycle time of high-speed milling operations. Experiments and predictions were focused on pocketing operations with a zig-zag tool path, quantifying the significant discrepancy between the programmed feed rate and the actual average feed rate. A mechanistic approach for cycle time evaluation is proposed. The mechanistic model construction is based on the experimental measurement of the machine tool acceleration and specific geometric assumptions regarding tool motion. For high feed rates, the proposed approach is capable of capturing the influence of the zig-zag tool path orientation on the machining cycle time.     

Time-optimal tool motion planning with tool-tip kinematic constraints for robotic machining of sculptured surfaces

A time-optimal motion planning method for robotic machining of sculptured surfaces is reported in this paper. Compared with the general time-optimal robot motion planning, a surface machining process provides extra constraints such as tool-tip kinematic limits and complexity of the curved tool path that also need to be taken into account. In the proposed method, joint space and tool-tip kinematic constraints are considered. As there are high requirements for tool path following accuracy, an efficient numerical integration method based on the Pontryagin maximum principle is adopted as the solver for the time-optimal tool motion planning problem in robotic machining. Nonetheless, coupled and multi-dimensional constraints make it difficult to solve the problem by numerical integration directly. Therefore, a new method is provided to simplify the constraints in this work. The algorithm is implemented on the ROS (robot operating system) platform. The geometry tool path is generated by the CAM software firstly. And then the whole machine moving process, i.e. the feedrate of machining process, is scheduled by the proposed method. As a case study, a sculptured surface is machined by the developed method with a 6-DOF robot driven by the ROS controller. The experimental results validate the developed algorithm and reveal its advantages over other conventional motion planning algorithms for robotic machining.     

Smooth tool path generation for 5-axis machining of triangular mesh surface with nonzero genus

NC machining of a nonzero genus triangular mesh surface is being more widely confronted than before in the manufacturing field. At present, due to the complexity of geometry computation related to tool path generation, only one path pattern of iso-planar type is adopted in real machining of such surface. To improve significantly 5-axis machining of the nonzero genus mesh surface, it is necessary to develop a more efficient and robust tool path generation method. In this paper, a new method of generating spiral or contour-parallel tool path is proposed, which is inspired by the cylindrical helix or circle which are a set of parallel lines on the rectangular region obtained by unwrapping the cylinder. According to this idea, the effective data structure and algorithm are first designed to transform a nonzero genus surface into a genus-0 surface such that the conformal map method can be used to build the bidirectional mapping between the genus-0 surface and the rectangular region. In this rectangular region, the issues of spiral or contour-parallel tool path generation fall into the category of simple straight path planning. Accordingly, the formula for calculating the parameter increment for the guide line is derived by the difference scheme on the mesh surface and an accuracy improvement method is proposed based on the edge curve interpolation for determining the cutter contact (CC) point. These guarantee that the generated tool path can meet nicely the machining requirement. To improve further the kinematic and dynamic performance of 5-axis machine tool, a method for optimizing tool orientation is also preliminarily investigated. Finally, the experiments are performed to demonstrate the proposed method and show that it can generate nicely the spiral tool path or contour-parallel tool path on the nonzero genus mesh surface and also can guarantee the smooth change of tool orientation.     

Using CAD geometric variation approach machining complex workpiece by a 3-SPR parallel machine tool

A novel CAD geometric variation approach is proposed for machining the complex workpiece, caving letter on a 3D free-form surface, and milling cam by a 3-SPR parallel machine tool. First, a simulation mechanism of the 3-SPR parallel manipulator is created, and a workspace of the moving platform is constructed by the 3-SPR simulation mechanism. Second, the tool path guiding plane with complex workpiece and the simulation mechanism of the 3-SPR parallel machine tool are combined to form the whole simulation mechanism. Third, the extension of the active legs and the position of the moving platform are solved automatically and visualized dynamically by using simulation mechanism. Finally, the formulae for solving displacement kinematics of the 3-SPR parallel machine tool are derived. The results of the simulation mechanism are verified by kinematic analytic results. The CAD geometric variation approach is straightforward without compiling any program.     

Optimizing tool orientations for 5-axis machining by configuration-space search method

This paper presents a methodology and algorithms of optimizing and smoothing the tool orientation control for 5-axis sculptured surface machining. A searching method in the machining configuration space (C-space) is proposed to find the optimal tool orientation by considering the local gouging, rear gouging and global tool collision in machining. Based on the machined surface error analysis, a boundary search method is developed first to find a set of feasible tool orientations in the C-space to eliminate gouging and collision. By using the minimum cusp height as the objective function, we first determine the locally optimal tool orientation in the C-space to minimize the machined surface error. Considering the adjacent part geometry and the alternative feasible tool orientations in the C-space, tool orientations are then globally optimized and smoothed to minimize the dramatic change of tool orientation during machining. The developed method can be used to automate the planning and programming of tool path generation for high performance 5-axis sculptured surface machining. Computer implementation and examples are also provided in the paper.     

Neural networks for estimating the tool path length in concurrent engineering applications

This paper deals with the development of a neural computing system that can predict the cutting tool path length for milling an arbitrary pocket defined within the domain of a product design, in a computer numerically controlled (CNC) setting. Existing computer aided design and manufacturing systems (CAD/CAM) consume significant amounts of time in terms of data entry pertaining to the geometries and subsequent modifications to them. In the concurrent engineering environment, where even the designer needs information from the CAD/CAM systems, such time-consuming processes can be expensive. To alleviate this problem, a neural network system can be used to estimate machining time by predicting cost-dependent variables such as tool path length for the pocket milling operation. Pockets are characterized and classified into various groups. A randomized design is described so that the training samples that have been chosen represent the domain evenly. An appropriate network was built and trained with the sample pocket geometries. The analysis of the performance of the system in terms of tool path length prediction for new pocket geometries is presented.