Characterisation of pile salting with sodium replaced mixtures of salts in dry-cured loin manufacture

Salting, one of the fundamental operations in Spanish cured loin manufacturing, is essential to preserve the product throughout its processing and storage. However, elevated blood pressure has been identified to be the major adverse effect associated with increased sodium intake. The partial replacement of NaCl with other chloride salts such as KCl, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ has been proposed as a possible strategy to reduce the sodium content of these products. The aim of this study was to determine the salting time needed to reach the same chloride content as commercial dry-cured loins and, to characterise the first step in dry-cured loin production (salting), in loins salted with sodium partial replaced salts. The results indicated a reduction in the salting time when using KCl as NaCl substitute and an increase in the salting time when adding CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ to the mixture. Further studies need to be done in order to fully understand the influence of these low sodium mixtures of salts on the following manufacturing steps and the final quality characteristics of the product.     

Biochemical and sensory changes in dry-cured ham salted with partial replacements of NaCl by other chloride salts

The reduction of the content of sodium chloride in dry-cured ham was studied in to prevent the problems related to high sodium intake (i.e. the hypertension). One of the possibilities to reduce the sodium content is the partial replacement of sodium chloride by mixtures of potassium, magnesium and calcium chloride salts. The effect of two salting formulations (formulation II: 50% NaCl-50% KCl and formulation III: 55% NaCl, 25% KCl, 15 CaCl₂ and 5 MgCl₂) on the protease activity through the dry-curing process and on the sensory characteristics of the final product was evaluated and compared to those of control hams (formulation I, 100% NaCl). Sensory attributes were all affected in the hams containing CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ while hams containing 50% KCl and NaCl (formulation II) were better valued, except for the attribute taste probably due to the potassium contribution to bitter taste.     

Influence of low-sodium mixtures of salts on the post-salting stage of dry-cured ham process

The reduction of added sodium chloride in dry-cured ham has been proposed to decrease the amount of sodium in the diet. The effect of substituting sodium chloride by potassium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride in some physicochemical characteristics of dry-cured ham throughout the post-salting stage was evaluated. The partial replacement of NaCl had significant effects on salt content at the end of the post-salting stage in the traditional process and this significantly affected a_w. The results showed that lower sodium hams, salted with a combination of NaCl and KCl, needed a maximum of 16 days more (32% increase) of post-salting than hams salted with 100% NaCl, while hams salted with a combination of NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ needed a maximum of 26 days more (52% increase).     

ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTS OF SODIUM AND OTHER IONS IN FOODS: A REVIEW1

Salt or sodium chloride (NaCl) is a common ingredient in many processed foods, and especially in cured meats. In addition to flavoring and functional contributions, NaCl is believed to play an important antimicrobial role in these products. The antimicrobial activity of NaCl is reviewed in light of currrent calls for a reduction of Na⁺ in the human diet due to health reasons, and the possible replacement of NaCl in processed foods with chloride salts of other ions (i.e. KCl, MgCl₂, CaCl₂). Factors interacting with NaCl and complicating the nature of the preservative system in processed foods are examined; recent work with alternative chloride salts is summarized; complex solute-water activity interactions are highlighted; and, several important factors are considered in relation to the antimicrobial effects of NaCl and the possibility of its replacement with other chloride salts.     

A study on the implications of NaCl reduction in the fermentation profile of Conservolea natural black olives

This study examined the impact of different mixtures of NaCl, KCl, and CaCl₂ on the fermentation profiles of Conservolea natural black olives. Five different combinations of chloride salts were investigated, namely (i) 8% NaCl (control treatment), (ii) 4% NaCl and 4% KCl, (iii) 4% NaCl and 4% CaCl₂, (iv) 4% KCl and 4% CaCl₂, and (v) 2.6% NaCl-2.6% KCl-2.6% CaCl₂. The changes in the microbial association (lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, Enterobacteriaceae), pH, titratable acidity, organic acids, volatile compounds, and mineral content in olive flesh were analyzed. Results demonstrated that all salt combinations led to vigorous lactic acid processes based on the obtained values of pH (3.9-4.2) and titratable acidity (0.70-0.86 g lactic acid per 100 ml brine). Organoleptic evaluation was a critical factor in the acceptability of the final product. Increasing concentrations of CaCl₂ or a combination of KCl and CaCl₂ rendered the product bitter with low acceptability by the taste panel. Only one combination of chloride salts (4% NaCl and 4% KCl) could finally produce olives with lower sodium content and good organoleptic attributes. The results of this study could be employed by the Greek table olive industry in an attempt to produce natural black olives with less sodium without affecting the traditional taste of fermented olives in order to meet consumers’ demand for low sodium dietary intake.     

Effects of Chloride Salts on Appearance, Palatability, and Storage Traits of Flaked and Formed Beef Bullock Restructured Steaks

Restructured steaks made with 0.5 or 1.0% KCl, 0.5% MgCl₂ and 0.5% CaCl₂ were more desirable and darker red in raw color than blends formulated with 0.5 or 1.0% NaCl. Visual properties of raw steaks containing 0.5 or 1.0% chloride salt were scored higher than the control (no salt added) in 14 of 16 orthogonal contrast mean comparisons. Steaks made with 1.0% CaCl₂ or MgCl₂ were rated lower than the control in flavor desirability and overall satisfaction ratings. Control, 0.5 or 1.0% NaCl or 0.5 and 1.0% KCl steaks were not different in juiciness, tenderness, flavor desirability or overall satisfaction ratings. Steaks made with chloride salts were rancid after 70 days frozen storage. Results showed steaks made with KCl were superior to steaks formulated with CaCl₂ or MgCl₂.     

Use of a D-optimal mixture design to estimate the effects of diverse chloride salts on the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus

The effects of NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ and their mixtures on the ionic strength (IS) of the medium and the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus were studied by means of a D-optimal mixture experimental design with constrains (total salt concentration ≤ 9.0%, wt/vol) and the generalized z-value. The IS was linearly related to the concentrations of the diverse salts and its increase, for similar concentrations of salts, followed the order MgCl₂ > CaCl₂ > NaCl > KCl. Within the experimental region, the lag phase duration (λ) was mainly affected by NaCl and CaCl₂ and the interaction KCl with MgCl₂. The maximum specific growth rate (μ_max) decreased as NaCl (the highest effect), CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ increased (regardless of the presence or not of previous NaCl); low KCl concentrations had a stimulating effect on μ_max, but its overall effect showed a similar trend to the other salts. The maximum population reached (N_max) was the least affected parameter and decreased as NaCl and CaCl₂ concentrations increased regardless of the presence of the other salts. The equations that expressed the growth parameters as a function of the diverse chloride salts, within the limits assayed, were developed and the corresponding z- and harmonic Z-values were estimated.     

Influence of sodium replacement on the salting kinetics of pork loin

The partial replacement of sodium chloride by other salts has been proposed as a possible strategy to reduce the sodium content of cured meat products. Nevertheless, there is very little knowledge as regards the influence of salts other than sodium chloride on salting kinetics.The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect brought about by substituting sodium chloride with potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride on the salting kinetics of dry cured loins. The results showed very important changes in the salting pattern depending on the type of salts. Partial substitution of sodium affected both water and ion transport during the salting process. The presence of KCl decreased water loss while CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ had the opposite effect. However, replacement of up to 50% NaCl by KCl had no significant effect on the salting kinetics in the case of the control formulation. Calcium and magnesium cations penetrated with difficulty into the muscle remaining in the brine formed during the pile salting process. Moreover, the presence of calcium and magnesium cations considerably reduced the sodium and potassium content of the salted loin.     

Effect of ionic strength of different salts on the binding of volatile compounds to porcine soluble protein extracts in model systems

The effect of different salts on the binding ability of porcine soluble protein extracts was studied using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and GC/MS analysis. Previously, the effect of the different salts (NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂) on the volatile compound headspace concentration in water solution was determined. KCl produced a similar salting out effect as NaCl increasing the volatile compound headspace concentration up to 5–10 times. However, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂ did not produce a salting out effect on the volatile compounds studied. Finally, NaCl and KCl produced a significant reduction on the binding ability of sarcoplasmic protein extracts to branched aldehydes, hexanal and methional while no effect was produced on octanal and 2-pentanone. On the other hand, the effect of MgCl₂ and CaCl₂ was much lower even at high ionic strength, except for the branched aldehydes where the presence of MgCl₂ at 1.0 ionic strength produced the complete liberation of the volatile compound bound. Consequently, the partial NaCl substitution in meat products by other salts must be considered not only due to their salting out effect but also due to their effect on protein binding ability.     

Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization behaviour of freeze-dried lactose-salt mixtures

Water sorption properties of freeze-dried lactose, lactose/CaCl₂, lactose/NaCl, lactose/MgCl₂, and lactose/KCl mixtures in their molar ratio of (9:1) were investigated. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) models were used to model water sorption properties. Water is known to function as a plasticizer, depressing the glass transition and facilitating crystallization. Crystallization in the present study resulted in loss of sorbed water from lactose. The crystallization of pure lactose and lactose/salt mixtures was observed at RVP?44.0% within 24 h. At RVP?54.4% water contents were higher in lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ mixtures than in pure lactose, lactose/NaCl, and lactose/KCl.Water content in pure lactose after crystallization was ?5.0%, suggesting that lactose crystallized as a mixture of α-lactose monohydrate and various anhydrous forms of α/β-lactose crystals. Anhydrous lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ had higher glass transition temperatures than lactose, but other salts (NaCl and KCl) with lactose gave lower glass transition than amorphous lactose. It seems that bivalent salts in mixtures with lactose gave a higher T_g than smaller monovalent ions. Salts delayed lactose crystallization. The effect on lactose crystallization was highest with calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and lowest with potassium chloride (KCl). It seems that different salts interacted with lactose to different extents. For water sorption, GAB model gave a better fit than BET model. Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization properties of lactose/salt mixtures should be considered in manufacturing and storage of dairy-based dehydrated materials.     

Effect of chloride salts on protein extraction and interfacial protein film formation in meat batters

Six comminuted chicken breast meat mixes and six meat batters were made with isoionic NaCl (25 g kg^?1), MgCl₂, CaCl₂, KCl, LiCl (IS = 0.43) and 15 g kg^?1 NaCl (IS = 0.26). The quantity and type of proteins extracted and used for interfacial protein film (IPF) formation was determined and related to batter stability. The monovalent salts produced IPF which differed in individual protein content between salts but which all contained significantly larger amounts of protein (P < 0.01) than those using divalent salts. MgCl₂ extracted more protein than CaCl₂ and produced a different protein profile in the IPF. However, MgCl₂ formed unstable raw batters whereas CaCl₂ did not. In addition, a simple, rapid method for extracting and quantifying proteins from meat batters was developed to assist in direct determination of the actual soluble protein uptake by the fat phase during comminution.     

Nucleotides and their degradation products during processing of dry-cured ham, measured by HPLC and an enzyme sensor

The aim of this work was to study how nucleotide degradation during the processing of dry-cured ham is affected when using three types of salting (100% NaCl; 50% NaCl and 50% KCl; 55% NaCl, 25% KCl, 15% CaCl₂ and 5% MgCl₂). Divalent salts in the salting mixture depressed the breakdown rate from the beginning of the process (salting and post-salting) up to the ripening stage (7 months) when the inosine (Ino), hypoxanthine (Hx) and xanthine (X) concentrations matched for the three treatments. The evolution of Hx and Hx + X were analysed by HPLC and an enzyme sensor, respectively, during processing. Time and temperature conditions during the curing time did not affect Hx stability. The usefulness of the enzyme sensor was confirmed and it is a practical tool to determine Hx + X in dry-cured ham, as an index of minimum curing time. A good correlation between enzyme sensor and HPLC data was observed.     

Rheological and Gelation Properties of Meat Batters Prepared with Three Chloride Salts

The gelation and rheological properties of poultry meat emulsions prepared with three chloride salts (NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂) and 50/50 mixtures of the above salts at isoionic strength (IS = 0.42) were studied. The relationship between shear rate and shear stress for the different raw meat emulsions was found to be nonlinear and followed Bingham pseudoplastic behavior. The yield stress for the emulsion containing only MgCl₂ was significantly lower as compared to all the other treatments. The highest rigidity modulus values obtained during cooking were observed in the NaCl + MgCl₂ treatment followed by the NaCl + KCl, NaCl and KCl. The emulsion containing MgCl₂ only broke down at the initial stages of cooking, exhibiting the destabilizing effect of the magnesium cation.     

KCl部分替代NaCl腌制对干腌肉制品蛋白质水解和感官品质的影响

以猪后腿肉为原料,利用添加量20%～60%的KCl部分替代NaCl对原料肉块进行腌制,NaCl腌制为对照组,对干腌肉块的理化、蛋白水解和感官指标进行测定。结果表明：KCl替代NaCl比例在0～60%时,对产品蛋白水解指数、氨基氮、肽氮和丙氨酰胺肽酶活力均无显著影响;感官评定结果表明KCl替代比例不超过40%时,对产品的各项感官指标的影响均无显著差异（P＞0.05）;说明KCl替代NaCl最佳比例为40%,产品中NaCl含量降低至3.14%,且蛋白降解指标和风味不产生明显变化。     

Effect of chloride salt mixtures on selected attributes and mineral content of fermented cracked Aloreña olives

Sodium chloride is essential in table olive fermentation, storage and packing to guarantee safety and flavor. However, consumers are progressively concerned about sodium intake. In this work, the effect of selected attributes and mineral contents of fermented cracked Aloreña olives as a function of different chloride salt mixtures were studied, using a simplex lattice design with constrains (NaCl + CaCl₂ + KCl = 0.110 kg/l). The best fruit colour was observed at half proportions of KCl and NaCl or CaCl₂; optimum firmness was around the centre of the triangular coordinates but close to the line connecting CaCl₂ and NaCl vertexes; and the best overall quality was obtained in the 0.037 kg/l NaCl and 0.073 kg/l KCl mixture. The concentrations in the fermented olive flesh of the involved elements depended on their initial levels and on the CaCl₂ × NaCl and CaCl₂ × KCl interactions. Results demonstrate that sodium chloride can be replaced in table olives, at least partially, with potassium or calcium chlorides.     

Effects of Chloride Salts on Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties of Frankfurters

Triplicate 4.5 kg batches of frankfurters formulated with either pork/beef or mechanically deboned turkey (MDT) were made to replace all (100%) or part (35%) of the sodium chloride (NaCl) with either potassium chloride (KCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) or lithium chloride (LiCl). Regardless of storage period or formulation, replacing all of the NaCl with either KCl or MgCl₂ was detrimental to flavor. This same replacement with LiCl was not detrimental to flavor in pork/beef formulations. Data suggest that MgCl₂ would not be a satisfactory substitute for NaCl in these formulations; however, replacing 35% of the NaCl with KCl may be possible. Because of its toxicity, LiCl is not GRAS-approved and we do not recommend its use but, its use in this study more closely approximated the sensory properties of NaCl than either KCl or MgCl₂.     

Textural properties and microstructure of low-fat and sodium-reduced meat batters formulated with gellan gum and dicationic salts

Instrumental texture characteristics of low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters formulated with other salts (KCl and MgCl₂ or CaCl₂) with gellan gum were evaluated. Fat and sodium reduction through incorporation of gellan gum and either of the dicationic salts produced less rigid, more ductile structures. Inclusion of magnesium chloride resulted in better performance, whereas addition of calcium chloride resulted in less desirable properties. The dicationic salts level used probably inhibited the gellan gum thermoreversible properties, affecting its water holding properties. Microstructural differences between the dicationic salt treatments were apparently due to the effect of dicationic salt concentration on myofibrillar protein extraction and solubilization, and gellan gum gelation properties. Use of magnesium chloride in tandem with gellan gum in the studied low-fat, reduced-sodium meat batters effectively compensated for the structural differences caused by fat and sodium reduction.     

The effect of brine composition and pH on the yield and nature of water-soluble proteins extractable from brined muscle of cod (Gadus morhua)

Fillets of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) were held for 36 h in brines of pH 6.5 and 8.5, respectively, containing various combinations of NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂. Proximate analyses and chloride content were determined. Soluble muscle protein extracted in distilled water and protein released into the brine following salting was determined by SDS–PAGE. The soluble fraction was not affected by the presence of divalent salts or KCl in the brines, but it was affected by the initial pH. Both actin and myosin heavy chain (MHC) were released in pH 6.5 brines after immersion of the fish. On the other hand, an initial pH of 8.5 did not favour the release of these proteins. There was a smaller variety of remaining soluble proteins in salted muscle with an initial pH of 6.5, than with 8.5. However, this effect of the lower pH was offset to the extent that the ionic strength of the brine was higher.     

Is There a Potential Consumer Market for Low‐Sodium Fermented Sausages?

The NaCl levels in dry fermented sausages were reduced by 50% or were substituted with KCl, CaCl₂, or a blend of KCl and CaCl₂ (1:1). The quality, safety, and the potential consumer market of dry fermented sausages were assessed. Neither 50% reduction of the NaCl content nor the substitution of 50% of the NaCl with KCl influenced the fermentation and maturation process. However, when CaCl₂ was used as the substitute salt (50%), there was a significant decrease in pH, an increase in the water activity, and a decrease in lactic acid and micrococcus bacterial counts. Overall, the sensory acceptance decreased in dry fermented sausages with reduced sodium content. However, cluster analysis and internal preference mapping revealed potential for commercialization of samples with 50% of the NaCl content substituted with KCl or with a mixture of KCl and CaCl₂ (1:1).