Cost evaluation of two potential nuclear power plants for hydrogen production

Hydrogen is recognized as one of the most promising alternative fuels to meet the energy demand for the future by providing a carbon-free solution. In regards to hydrogen production, there has been increasing interest to develop, innovate and commercialize more efficient, effective and economic methods, systems and applications. Nuclear based hydrogen production options through electrolysis and thermochemical cycles appear to be potentially attractive and sustainable for the expanding hydrogen sector. In the current study, two potential nuclear power plants, which are planned to be built in Akkuyu and Sinop in Turkey, are evaluated for hydrogen production scenarios and cost aspects. These two plants will employ the pressurized water reactors with the electricity production capacities of 4800 MW (consisting of 4 units of 1200 MW) for Akkuyu nuclear power plant and 4480 MW (consisting of 4 units of 1120 MW) for Sinop nuclear power plant. Each of these plants are expected to cost about 20 billion US dollars. In the present study, these two plants are considered for hydrogen production and their cost evaluations by employing the special software entitled “Hydrogen Economic Evaluation Program (HEEP)” developed by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) which includes numerous options for hydrogen generation, storage and transportation. The costs of capital, fuel, electricity, decommissioning and consumables are calculated and evaluated in detail for hydrogen generation, storage and transportation in Turkey. The results show that the amount of hydrogen cost varies from 3.18 $/kg H₂ to 6.17 $/kg H₂.     

HEEP: A new tool for the economic evaluation of hydrogen economy

Under agreement and in collaboration with the Indian BHABHA Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has just released the newly developed Hydrogen Economic Evaluation Programme (HEEP) software, which can be used to perform economic analysis related to large scale hydrogen production. The software could be used to analyse economics of the most promising processes for hydrogen production. These processes are: high and low-temperature electrolysis, thermo-chemical processes including Sulphur–Iodine (S-I) process, conventional electrolysis and steam reforming. The IAEA-HEEP software is also suitable for comparative studies not only between nuclear and fossil energy sources for hydrogen production but also for solely hydrogen production or cogeneration with electricity. The HEEP models are based on economic, technical as well as chronological inputs, and cost modelling. Modelling will include various aspects of hydrogen economy including storage, transport, and distribution with options to eliminate or include specific details as required by the users.     

An overview of the IAEA HEEP software and international programmes on hydrogen production using nuclear energy

Recent years have witnessed an increasing interest in hydrogen production using nuclear energy. A number of countries are actively exploring the option of nuclear hydrogen production and have established concrete roadmaps for near and far term achievements. This paper presents a summary of information presented at some IAEA technical meetings on status of nuclear hydrogen production including ongoing related R&D activities in Member States. The paper highlights, in addition, the IAEA hydrogen economic evaluation programme (HEEP) which has recently been developed under agreement and in collaboration with the BHABHA Atomic Research Centre (BARC). HEEP software can be used to perform the economics of the most promising processes for hydrogen production. Current processes considered in HEEP are: high and low temperature electrolysis, thermo-chemical processes including S-I process, conventional electrolysis and steam reforming. HEEP software is also suitable for comparative between nuclear and fossil energy sources, and for solely hydrogen production or cogeneration with electricity. The HEEP modelling includes various aspects of hydrogen economy including storage, transport, and distribution with options to eliminate or include specific details as required by the users.     

Recent advancements in the hydrogen value chain: Opportunities,challenges, and the way Forward–Middle East perspectives

This work highlights the recent advancements in the hydrogen value chain for the Middle East region by evaluating the feedstock, production technologies, storage options, delivery routes, and end-user applications. It discusses the national strategies for implementing the hydrogen value chain in the Middle East from 2020 to 2050. The challenges in the hydrogen value chain from techno-economic, safety, and social perspectives are also discussed in this study. Hydrogen production technologies are analyzed and compared. Steam-methane reforming has a high efficiency of 74% and a low hydrogen cost of $2.27/kg-H₂, making it the most dominant technology for hydrogen production. Electrolysis has a lower efficiency of 60% and a higher hydrogen cost of $10.30/kg-H_2, with more potential for further improvments.Furthermore, hydrogen storage options are compared. Compressed gas and cryogenic liquid options have the highest storage capacities of 39.2 and 70.9 kg/m³, respectively. However, they are not entirely safe due to the high flammability of hydrogen. Two hydrogen explosion incidents are also reported, the first explosion at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011 and the second in the Hindenburg fire in 1937. Metal hydrides propose a safer and more effective option, but they are still under research and development. For H₂ transportation options, pipelines and cryogenic tankers are the most conventional and efficient options (above 99%). Ships have the largest capacity of 10,000 tons per shipment and the maximum investment costs of 465M - 620M$ per barge, but they are not feasible. This review paper will help researchers and practitioners analyze the hydrogen value chain in a more systematic way for further improvements toward more practical applications.     

Utilization of renewable hybrid energy for refueling station in Al-Kharj,Saudi Arabia

Hydrogen is one of the energy carriers that can be produced using different techniques. Combining multiple energy sources can enhance hydrogen production and meet other electrical demands. The hybrid arrangement allows the produced hydrogen to be stored and used when the electrical energy sources are not adequate. In this study, utilizing the meteorological data was investigated using HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources) software for the optimal solution. The results demonstrated that the “best-optimized system has 270 kW of photovoltaic (PV), 1 unit of 300 kW of wind turbine (WT), 500 kW of electrolyzer, 100 kg/L of the hydrogen tank, 70 units of 1 kWh lithium-ion battery, and 472 kW of the converter. The selected hybrid energy system has the lowest Levelized cost of energy (LCOE), Levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH), and net present cost (NPC) of $/kg 0.6208, $/kg 9.34, and $ 484,360.00 respectively which judged the system to be the best choice for the proposed hydrogen project in AI-Kharj. This investigation will help stakeholders and policymakers optimize hybrid energy systems that economically meet the hydrogen production and refueling station demands of the AI-Kharj community.     

Impact of hydrogen refueling configurations and market parameters on the refueling cost of hydrogen

The cost of hydrogen in early fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) markets is dominated by the cost of refueling stations, mainly due to the high cost of refueling equipment, small station capacities, lack of economies of scale, and low utilization of the installed refueling capacity. Using the hydrogen delivery scenario analysis model (HDSAM), this study estimates the impacts of these factors on the refueling cost for different refueling technologies and configurations, and quantifies the potential reduction in future hydrogen refueling cost compared to today's cost in the United States. The current hydrogen refueling station levelized cost, for a 200 kg/day dispensing capacity, is in the range of $6–$8/kg H₂ when supplied with gaseous hydrogen, and $8–$9/kg H₂ for stations supplied with liquid hydrogen. After adding the cost of hydrogen production, packaging, and transportation to the station's levelized cost, the current cost of hydrogen at dispensers for FCEVs in California is in the range of $13–$15/kg H₂. The refueling station capacity utilization strongly influences the hydrogen refueling cost. The underutilization of station capacity in early FCEV markets, such as in California, results in a levelized station cost that is approximately 40% higher than it would be in a scenario where the station had been fully utilized since it began operating. In future mature hydrogen FCEV markets, with a large demand for hydrogen, the refueling station's levelized cost can be reduced to $2/kg H₂ as a result of improved capacity utilization and reduced equipment cost via learning and economies of scale.     

Advances in nuclear hydrogen production: Results from an IAEA international collaborative research project

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) had successfully concluded a Coordinated Research Project (CRP) on the techno-economic aspects of nuclear hydrogen production with the participation of eleven countries including leading countries on nuclear hydrogen production such as Japan, USA, China, India, Republic of Korea and Canada. The activities carried out through this four-years CRP paved the way for addressing several development key issues related to nuclear hydrogen production. The main focus was on assessing various technological and economic aspects of potential nuclear hydrogen production options. The CRP has resulted in finalizing four detailed case studies on different systems for nuclear hydrogen production. These case studies were used to perform benchmark analysis for the IAEA Hydrogen Economic Evaluation Programme (HEEP), developed by the IAEA to support Member States considering the use of nuclear energy for hydrogen production. This paper highlights some activities, results, and status of international collaborative efforts on nuclear hydrogen production conducted in the Member States (MSs) participated to the CRP. The paper also presents the results of country-specific case studies considering different nuclear reactors and hydrogen technologies.     

Economic and environmental competitiveness of high temperature electrolysis for hydrogen production

Alternative hydrogen production technologies are sought in part to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity compared with Steam Methane Reforming (SMR), currently the most commonly employed hydrogen production technology globally. This study investigates hydrogen production via High Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE) in terms of GHG emissions and cost of hydrogen production using a combination of Aspen HYSYS® modelling and life cycle assessment. Results show that HTSE yields life cycle GHG emissions from 3 to 20 kg CO_2e/kg H₂ and costs from $2.5 to 5/kg H₂, depending on the system parameters (e.g., energy source). A carbon price of $360/tonne CO_2e is estimated to be required to make HTSE economically competitive with SMR. This is estimated to potentially decrease to $50/tonne CO_2e with future technology advancements (e.g., fuel cell lifetime). The study offers insights for technology developers seeking to improve HTSE, and policy makers for decisions such as considering support for development of hydrogen production technologies.     

Economic viability and production capacity of wind generated renewable hydrogen

Generally, wind to power conversion is calculated by assuming the quality of wind as measured with a Weibull probability distribution at wind speed during power generation. We build on this method by modifying the Weibull distributions to reflect the actual range of wind speeds and wind energy density. This was combined with log law that modifies wind speed based on the height from the ground, to derive the wind power potential at windy sites. The study also provides the Levelized cost of renewable energy and hydrogen conversion capacity at the proposed sites. We have also electrolyzed the wind-generated electricity to measure the production capacity of renewable hydrogen. We found that all the sites considered are commercially viable for hydrogen production from wind-generated electricity. Wind generated electricity cost varies from $0.0844 to $0.0864 kW h, and the supply cost of renewable hydrogen is $5.30 to $ 5.80/kg-H₂. Based on the findings, we propose a policy on renewable hydrogen fueled vehicles so that the consumption of fossil fuels could be reduced. This paper shall serve as a complete feasibility study on renewable hydrogen production and utilization.     

Large-scale decomposition of green ammonia for pure hydrogen production

It is acknowledged that Hydrogen has a decisive role to play in insuring a reliable and efficient penetration of renewable electricity in the energy mix. Nonetheless, building a sustainable Hydrogen Economy is faced with numerous challenges across the value chain. Namely, large-scale production and storage are still open issues that need to be addressed. A promising solution is to store renewable H₂ in the form of green ammonia often referred to as Power-to-Ammonia. Thus unlocking all available infrastructure for ammonia to effectively store and export hydrogen in bulk. In this value chain, the missing link is ammonia cracking to recover back hydrogen at high purities. The present work explores a technical solution to recover hydrogen from ammonia at large-scale. Through an exhaustive technoeconomic analysis, we have demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale production of pure H₂ from ammonia. The designed Ammonia-to-H₂ plant operates at a thermal efficiency of 68.5% to produce 200 MTPD of pure hydrogen at 250 bar. Furthermore, this study has established a final estimation of the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from green ammonia. It was revealed that LCOH is mostly dependent on green ammonia cost, which in turn varies with renewable electricity cost.     

Optimization of low-carbon hydrogen supply chain networks in industrial clusters

This work presented an optimization-based model to aid in designing and planning a hydrogen supply chain network (HSCN) under different CO₂ emission mitigation policies. The novelty of this approach lies in simultaneously, 1) tracking the resources available in HSCN and 2) designing the spatial interaction production, storage, and transportation. The model was formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) to identify the minimum cost of HSCN. A case study was solved to assess the techno-economic performance of grey, blue and green hydrogen production while accounting for transport and the full energy system. A Pareto-curve was constructed to understand the trade-off between the Levelized cost of Hydrogen and emission reduction. The model also enabled the investigation of various long-distance hydrogen transport schemes; hydrogen transported as ammonia will cost 19% less than the other alternatives (liquid hydrogen, and liquid organic hydrogen carrier).     

A thorough investigation of solar-powered hydrogen potential and accurate location planning for big cities: A case study

In recent years, hydrogen has constituted a clean energy carrier that can be gained by the use of renewable electricity. The most preliminary stage in the process of renewable hydrogen generation is to find the best place for exploiting the most energy. Thus, this study seeks to optimize the process of location selection for the construction of a solar power station. This evaluation is performed on 12 cities of Isfahan in Iran. After ascertaining 11 criteria of key importance, Window Data Envelopment Analysis (WDEA) Method is used to prioritize the cities according to the data for a period of 11 years. Consequently, the most promising site is technically and economically scrutinized as to hydrogen production using solar electricity. Results pertaining to the first part of the study showed that the city of Natanz was efficient over the entire studied period. Considering 4 cases of different performance rates, annual electricity generation using solar panel model X21-345 and hydrogen production using an alkaline electrolyzer were estimated for the city. The estimations indicated that hydrogen production under the worst and the best cases would be 2.22 kg and 5.55 leading to energy efficiency of between 2.5% and 7.1%, respectively. Finally, economic assessment proved promising results in which Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) would be between 0.5317 and 1.6272 $/kWh and Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) would vary from 0.7911 to 1.6778 $/kg.     

The cost of hydrogen from coal

Isolation of the hydrogen and oxygen plants from the rest of the liquefaction complex, combined with appropriate transfer costs for all utilities and raw materials has been used to estimate the value of hydrogen. For the five alternatives, minimum cost hydrogen is produced by gasification of coal at 1000 psia. 500 psia gasification of coal yielded slightly more expensive hydrogen; however, on an equivalent mole basis of hydrogen, they were virtually the same. As would be expected, the cost of coal, discount cash flow rate and method of costing supplemental fuel needs were the primary variables affecting the cost of hydrogen. Hydrogen cost ranged from $0·847/1000 standard cubic feet to $2·986/1000 standard cubic feet.     

Technoeconomic analysis of hydrogen production via hydrogen sulfide methane reformation

Feasibility analysis of methane reforming by hydrogen sulfide for hydrogen production from technical and economical viewpoints was made. An improved Hydrogen Sulfide Methane Reformation (H₂SMR) process flowsheet was proposed in order to compare its production costs with those of Steam Methane Reformation (SMR) conventional process. Major findings were: high production of hydrogen, a partial self-sustainability process since some of the hydrogen produced could be used as an energy source, no greenhouse gases generated, common sizes of main equipment for a typical H₂ production and the possibility of eliminating Claus plants. Aspen Plus^® V8.4 simulation software was used. Results showed H₂SMR is a more economical source of H₂ production than SMR conventional process, with an estimated cost of 1.41 $/kg.     

Economics of hydrogen production and liquefaction by geothermal energy

Seven models are considered for the production and liquefaction of hydrogen by geothermal energy. In these models, we use electrolysis and high-temperature steam electrolysis processes for hydrogen production, a binary power plant for geothermal power production, and a pre-cooled Linde–Hampson cycle for hydrogen liquefaction. Also, an absorption cooling system is used for the pre-cooling of hydrogen before the liquefaction process. A methodology is developed for the economic analysis of the models. It is estimated that the cost of hydrogen production and liquefaction ranges between 0.979 $/kg H₂ and 2.615 $/kg H₂ depending on the model. The effect of geothermal water temperature on the cost of hydrogen production and liquefaction is investigated. The results show that the cost of hydrogen production and liquefaction decreases as the geothermal water temperature increases. Also, capital costs for the models involving hydrogen liquefaction are greater than those for the models involving hydrogen production only.     

Assessing sizing optimality of OFF-GRID AC-linked solar PV-PEM systems for hydrogen production

Herein, a novel methodology to perform optimal sizing of AC-linked solar PV-PEM systems is proposed. The novelty of this work is the proposition of the solar plant to electrolyzer capacity ratio (AC/AC ratio) as optimization variable. The impact of this AC/AC ratio on the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) and the deviation of the solar DC/AC ratio when optimized specifically for hydrogen production are quantified. Case studies covering a Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) range of 1400–2600 kWh/m²-year are assessed. The obtained LCOHs range between 5.9 and 11.3 USD/kgH₂ depending on sizing and location. The AC/AC ratio is found to strongly affect cost, production and LCOH optimality while the optimal solar DC/AC ratio varies up to 54% when optimized to minimize the cost of hydrogen instead of the cost of energy only. Larger oversizing is required for low GHI locations; however, H₂ production is more sensitive to sizing ratios for high GHI locations.     

Economic analysis of hydrogen production through a bio-ethanol steam reforming process: Sensitivity analyses and cost estimations

In this study, the hydrogen selling price from ethanol steam reforming has been estimated for two different production scenarios in the United States, i.e. central production (150,000 kg H₂/day) and distributed (forecourt) production (1500 kg H₂/day), based on a process flowchart generated by Aspen Plus^® including downstream purification steps and economic analysis model template published by the U.S Department of Energy (DOE) [1]. The effect of several processing parameters as well as catalyst properties on the hydrogen selling price has been evaluated. $2.69/kg is estimated as the selling price for a central production process of 150,000 kg H₂/day and $4.27/kg for a distributed hydrogen production process at a scale of 1500 kg H₂/day. Among the parameters investigated through sensitivity analyses, ethanol feedstock cost, catalyst cost, and catalytic performance are found to play a significant role on determining the final hydrogen selling price.     

Optimal sizing of photovoltaic systems based green hydrogen refueling stations case study Oman

Green hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide emission, advances the dependency on fossil fuels and improves the economy of the energy sector, especially in developing countries. Hydrogen is required for the green transportation sector and many other industrial applications. However, the high cost of green hydrogen production reduces the fast development of renewable energy projects based on hydrogen production. So, sizing by optimization is required to determine the optimum solutions for green hydrogen production. In this context, this paper aims to analyze three methods that can be developed and implemented for the production of green hydrogen for refueling stations using photovoltaic (PV) systems. Techno-economic models are adopted to calculate the Levelized Hydrogen Cost (LHC) for the PV grid-connected system, stand-alone PV system with batteries, and stand-alone PV system with fuel cells. The photovoltaic systems based green hydrogen refueling stations are optimized using Homer software. The optimization results of the Net Profit Cost (NPC), and the LHC permit the comparison of the three cases and the selection of the optimal solution. The analysis has shown that a 3 MWp grid-connected PV system represents a promising green hydrogen production at an LHC of 5.5 €/kg. The system produces 58 615 kg of green hydrogen per year reducing carbon dioxide emission by 8209 kg per year. The LHC in the stand-alone PV system with batteries, and stand-alone PV system with fuel cells are 5.74 €/kg and 7.38 €/kg, respectively.     

Techno economic feasibility study on hydrogen production using concentrating solar thermal technology in India

The techno-economic analysis of hydrogen (H₂) production using concentrating solar thermal (CST) technologies is performed in this study. Two distinct hydrogen production methods, namely: a) thermochemical water splitting [model 1] and b) solid oxide electrolysers [model 2], are modeled by considering the total heat requirement and supplied from a central tower system located in Jaisalmer, India. The hourly simulated thermal energy obtained from the 10 MW_th central tower system is fed as an input to both these hydrogen production systems for estimating the hourly hydrogen production rate. The results revealed that these models yield hydrogen at a rate of 31.46 kg/h and 25.2 kg/h respectively for model 1 and model 2. Further, the Levelized cost of hydrogen (LCoH) for model 1 and model 2 is estimated as ranging from $ 8.23 and $ 14.25/kg of H₂ and $ 9.04 and $ 19.24/kg, respectively, for different scenarios. Overall, the present work displays a different outlook on real-time hydrogen production possibilities and necessary inclusions to be followed for future hydrogen plants in India. The details of the improvisation and possibilities to improve the LCoH are also discussed in this study.     

Cost assessment and evaluation of various hydrogen delivery scenarios

In this paper, performance and cost assessment studies, including the stages of hydrogen storage, transmission and distribution of three different hydrogen delivery pathways are undertaken comparatively. The produced hydrogen is stored under different temperatures and pressures and then transported to the nearby cities for distribution. In addition, three different methods for the transportation of the produced hydrogen to the distribution centers are studied, which are as transportation for hydrogen by the pressurized tanks, cryogenic liquid hydrogen tanker and the gas pipelines. Moreover, the transmission options from the distribution center to the target consumer are also examined for three different conditions. As a result, the hydrogen production capacity, the levelized cost of energy distribution (in $/kg), the infrastructure costs (truck, tanker number, gas line costs, etc.) for the selected transmission scenario are calculated. Furthermore, the environmental impact (greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions) and some application parameters of the proposed system (e.g., number of hydrogen fuel stations and the distance between the stations, length of the distribution lines, etc.) are also determined. The highest levelized cost of delivery is obtained as 8.02 $/kg H₂ for the first scenario whereas the lowest cost is obtained as 2.73 $/kg H₂ for the third scenario.