Characterization and residual stresses of WC-Co thermally sprayed coatings

The present investigation has been conducted in order to determine the residual stresses of an as-ground WC-12Co coating of two different thicknesses, by means of two different methods. Firstly, X-ray diffraction techniques, which allowed the determination of the surface residual stresses of the coating by means of the method called “sin²ψ” method. Secondly, an incremental hole drilling technique together with the integral method, which allowed the analysis of the non-uniform through-thickness residual stresses present in the coatings. It has been determined that the surface residual stresses are of a compressive nature, which could be due to the grinding that was applied to the coatings in order to achieve the desired thicknesses. On the contrary, the results of the incremental hole drilling tests indicated that the through-thickness residual stress distributions are not uniform and are characterized by the presence of tensile peak stresses, at depths in the range of ~ 50-125 μm. Such stresses were observed to decrease towards the coating-substrate interface where the compressive component of the stress state becomes greater than the tensile component. It has been found that the mean residual von Mises stress is higher in the thinner coating than in the thicker one, of approximately 180 and 107 MPa, respectively.     

再制造电弧喷涂成形层的残余应力分析

阐述了热喷涂涂层中残余应力的产生原因,并利用XRD残余应力测试仪、纳米压痕仪、扫描电镜和X射线衍射仪研究了不同厚度和热处理温度下电弧喷涂7Cr13涂层的残余应力、弹性模量及涂层微观结构.结果表明,涂层的残余应力与厚度成正比关系.适当的热处理工艺能够释放涂层的残余拉应力,当热处理的温度在200～300 ℃之间时,涂层由拉应力转变为压应力,并随着温度的升高,压应力逐渐增大;涂层的弹性模量和热处理温度之间成正比关系.通过对涂层残余应力分布的研究,为喷涂成形较厚涂层提供了一定的理论依据和方法.     

X-ray diffraction measurement of residual stress in WC-Co thermally sprayed coatings onto metal substrates

Investigation of the residual stresses and microstructural properties associated with HVOF thermal spray coating of WC-17 wt% Co of same thickness on three substrates with coefficients of thermal expansion different to that of WC. The residual stresses were measured by X-ray diffraction sin²ψ techniques using CoKα radiation. The results indicated residual stresses that have different natures for the as-sprayed coatings despite using the same powder as feedstock. The magnitudes of the stresses in the as-sprayed condition are low.     

Dynamic residual stress in thermal sprayed coatings

0IntroductionExtensive studies and measuring methods for residualstress in thermal sprayed coatings had been conducted bymany researchers,such as X-ray diffraction,neutron dif-fraction,layer removal and also Almen test[1-4].Howev-er,up to date,none has in…     

Measurement of residual stress in thermal spray coatings by the incremental hole drilling method

The experimental measurement of residual stresses originating within thick coatings deposited by thermal spray processes onto solid substrates plays a fundamental role in the preliminary stages of coating design and process parameters optimization. The main objective of the present investigation was to determine the residual stresses by means of the incremental hole drilling method in order to perform the measurement of the stress field through the thickness of two different HVOF Nickel-based coatings. The holes through the coatings were carried out by means of a high velocity drilling machine (Restan). A finite element calculation procedure was used to identify the calibration coefficients necessary to evaluate the stress field. The Integral method was used for the analysis of non-uniform through-thickness stresses. The results for both coatings indicate that the nature of the residual stresses is tensile and their values are between 150-300 MPa.     

Fatigue cracks in HVOF thermally sprayed WC-Co coatings

Initiation and early growth of fatigue cracks of a medium carbon steel with HVOF thermally sprayed WC-Co coatings prepared from two types of commercially available powders with similar total chemical composition were investigated under rotating bending conditions. The morphology of the fatigue crack is divided into two type—linear cracks and net-like cracks—depending on the types of powders and the thickness of the coatings. The fatigue cracks in thinner coatings were closer to each other than those for the thick coatings.     

Nanoindentation on the surface of thermally sprayed coatings

The ability to quantify surface mechanical properties is valuable for assessing the quality of thermal spray coatings. This is especially important for prostheses where loading is placed directly on the surface. Hydroxyapatite was classified to small (20-40 μm), medium (40-60 μm) and large (60-80 μm) particle sizes and thermal sprayed to produce a coating from spread solidified hydroxyapatite droplets. It was revealed for the first time, that nanoindentation can be successfully used to determine the hardness and elastic modulus on the surface of well spread solidified droplets at the hydroxyapatite coating surface. Comparison with indentation results from polished cross-section exhibited comparable values and statistical variations. The hardness was 5.8 ± 0.6, 5.4 ± 0.5 and 5.0 ± 0.6 GPa on coatings produced from small, medium and large sized powder. Similarly, the elastic modulus decreased from 121 ± 7, 118 ± 7 to 114 ± 7 GPa, respectively. Use of several indentation loads gave comparable results with sintered hydroxyapatite suggesting good inter-splat bonding within the coating. MicroRaman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction confirmed a larger degree of dehydroxylation for the smaller particles also revealing a lower elastic modulus. This shows the influence of particle size and possibly dehydroxylation of hydroxyapatite on the mechanical properties of the coating surface.     

Determination of residual stress distribution from in situ curvature measurements for thermally sprayed WC/Co coatings

An in situ monitoring of curvature of the specimen during spraying using a high speed video system was implemented to determine stresses in thermally sprayed WC/Co coatings. Influences of different spray-ing techniques (atmospheric plasma spraying and high-velocity oxygen fuel) and cooling levels were con-sidered using a mathematical model. Results show that temperature history of a part is of paramount importance in stress generation and distribution.     

Significance of quenching stress in the cohesion and adhesion of thermally sprayed coatings

In thermal spraying, molten particles strike a solid surface, where they are flattened and quenched within a very short time. Considerable in-plane tensile stress on the order of 100 MPa can develop within each splat during quenching after solidification because thermal contraction of the particle is constrained by the underlying solid. Ni-20Cr alloy and alumina powders have been plasma sprayed in air onto steel substrates that were maintained at about 473 K. The influence of spraying conditions such as spray distance on the magnitude of the quenching stress have been studied by measuring the curvature of the substrate during spraying. Mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus and bend strength of the deposited coatings have also been measured. A strong correlation was found between the quenching stress and the strength of Ni-20Cr coatings, which suggests that the strength of interlamellar bonding limits the quenching stress at such temperature. Presented at ITSC ’92, June, 1992, Orlando, Florida.     

Strain analysis of plasma sprayed thermal barrier coatings under mechanical stress

The stiffness of air plasma sprayed (APS) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) was determined from bending experiments combining strain analysis on a microstructural level with macroscopic mechanical parameters. Tests were performed with freestanding and attached TBCs, the latter either loaded in tension or in compression. Relationships are derived, which describe the TBC stiffness in a multilayer composite (attached TBC) and for a bimodular material that possess a lower stiffness in tension than in compression (stand-alone TBC). The increase of in-plane stiffness with increasing compressive stress emphasizes the importance of the spraying defects for the elastic response of the coating.     

冷喷涂和低压等离子喷涂Ni-Ti涂层：组织和性能

采用原子比1：1的Ni和Ti为原料,通过冷喷涂(CS)和低压等离子喷涂(LPPS)制备了Ni-Ti复合涂层,研究喷涂工艺对涂层的组织(孔隙率、相组成和显微组织)和性能(硬度、耐磨性和耐蚀性)的影响。结果表明：两种涂层均未发生明显的氧化,但表现出不同的组织结构。高速碰撞后的颗粒发生严重塑性变形使CS涂层具有低的孔隙率,且XRD未检测到其它的相生成;层片状结构的LPPS涂层内部形成了Ni-Ti金属间化合物相,其表现出高的显微硬度和低的磨损率。此外,LPPS涂层高的腐蚀电位和低的腐蚀电流密度,表明其高的耐蚀性。     

Effect of arc sprayed coatings on tensile properties of a type 316 steel

The effect of Al- and AlSiRE-coatings obtained by arc spray (AS) and high velocity arc spray (HVAS) technologies, on the tensile properties of type 316 steel specimens strained at elevated temperatures in air and vacuum has been systematically investigated. It is found that both temperature and environment play an important role in determining the mechanical properties of the coated 316 steel specimens strained at elevated temperatures. And the quantitative changes of surface roughness of coatings before and after straining correspond to the mechanical properties of the 316 steel substrate.     

Methods and application of residual stress analysis on thermally sprayed coatings and layer composites

Coating and layer composite manufacturing most commonly involves high temperature gradients and intensive heat transfer between the different composite materials. This can be noticed not only for thermal spraying, but also for other coating techniques. The combination of temperature gradients and materials with different thermophysical properties leads to the formation of thermal stresses in the composite, which are superimposed by stress generating effects during coating solidification, phase transformation or recrystallization. The final state of residual stresses affects the structural and functional properties of the coating as well as the component reliability during operation. Therefore, residual stress analysis is an important tool for the optimization of coatings and layer composite manufacturing processes in order to ensure stability of the processes, adhesion and compatibility of the coating, and finally, the reliability of the components in various technical systems.The most common residual stress measurement techniques are described and compared, with the focus on the incremental hole drilling and milling method. The advantages and disadvantages of the methods are discussed with respect to their application on industrial machine parts. The typical application fields for the different methods are given with respect to the specific measurement principles. The incremental hole drilling method is presented in more detail with application examples that illustrate the suitability of this method for the optimization of thermal spraying processes in industrial layer composite manufacturing by managing the heat and mass transfer in a most appropriate way.     

Adhesion improvements of Thermal Barrier Coatings with HVOF thermally sprayed bond coats

Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) are an effective engineering solution for the improvement of in service performance of gas turbines and diesel engine components. The quality and further performance of TBC, likewise all thermally sprayed coatings or any other kind of coating, is strongly dependent on the adhesion between the coating and the substrate as well as the adhesion (or cohesion) between the metallic bond coat and the ceramic top coat layer. The debonding of the ceramic layer or of the bond coat layer will lead to the collapse of the overall thermal barrier system. Though several possible problems can occur in coating application as residual stresses, local or net defects (like pores and cracks), one could say that a satisfactory adhesion is the first and intrinsic need for a good coating. The coating adhesion is also dependent on the pair substrate-coating materials, substrate cleaning and blasting, coating application process, coating application parameters and environmental conditions. In this work, the general characteristics and adhesion properties of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) having bond coats applied using High Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) thermal spraying and plasma sprayed ceramic top coats are studied. By using HVOF technique to apply the bond coats, high adherence and high corrosion resistance are expected. Furthermore, due to the characteristics of the spraying process, compressive stresses should be induced to the substrate. The compressive stresses are opposed to the tensile stresses that are typical of coatings applied by plasma spraying and eventually cause delamination of the coating in operational conditions. The evaluation of properties includes the studies of morphology, microstructure, microhardness and adhesive/cohesive resistance. From the obtained results it can be said that the main failure location is in the bond coat/ceramic interface corresponding to the lowest adhesion values.     

Relating Almen intensity to residual stresses induced by shot peening: a numerical approach

Shot peening is a surface impact treatment widely used to improve the performance of metal parts and welded details subjected to fatigue loading, contact fatigue, stress corrosion and other damage mechanisms. The better performance of the peened parts is mainly due to the residual stresses resulting from the plastic deformation of the surface layers of the material caused by the impact of the shot. Shot peening intensity is usually quantified by means of the Almen-scale, which measures the residual arc height of a strip made of a specific material, and of a pre-defined size. The scale does not, in other words, apply solely to the residual stress field of a component of unspecified material and size. In this paper, a finite element to predict the residual stresses induced by shot peening in a metal part and to relate these stresses to Almen intensity is proposed; the aim is to provide the designer with a useful tool with which to choose the optimal treatment parameters with respect to the mechanical behaviour of the peened parts. Experimental measurements of residual stresses and a comparison with existing experimental data validate this approach.     

Bonding strength of thermally sprayed coatings

Hybrid welding technologies (e.g. laser-arc, laser-plasma, light laser, submerged laser-arc and permanent joints) and their special features and applications are described.     

Residual stress evolution during the thermal cycling of plasma-sprayed zirconia coatings

X-ray diffraction has been used for the residual stress evaluation in two plasma-sprayed zirconia coatings: yttria-partially-stabilized zirconia and dysprosia-partially-stabilized zirconia. Following the evolution of these stresses with thermal cycling, an attempt at correlation between this evolution and the characteristics of the two coatings is undertaken.     

Development of single pendulum impact scratch test for evaluating of thermally sprayed coatings

The adhesion of thermally sprayed coatings is an important subject for engineers applying thermal spray pro-cess.The single pendulum impact scratch test is the most popular method in the tribological inwestigation of modified sur-faces of materials. In this paper,the adhesion of thermally sprayed coatings has been investigated using this testmethod .The key of evaluation for thermally sprayed coatings is the sheer strength of coatings obtained in the test.Theresults show that the test method is reproducible ,reliable and easy to perform,and does not require expensive equip-ment.The procedure proposed in the test method for evaluating the adhesion of coatings is more reliable and realistic thanothers.     

Thermal shock characteristics of plasma sprayed mullite coatings

Commercially available mullite (3Al₂O₃·2SiO₂) powders containing oxides of calcium and iron as impurities, have been made suitable for plasma spraying by using an organic binder. Stainless steel substrates covered with Ni-22Cr-10Al-1.0Y bond coat were spray coated with mullite. The 425 μm thick coatings were subjected to thermal shock cycling under burner rig conditions between 1000 and 1200 °C and less than 200 °C with holding times of 1, 5, and 30 min. While the coatings withstood as high as 1000 shock cycles without failure between 1000 and 200 °C, spallation occurred early at 120 cycles when shocked from 1200 °C. The coatings appeared to go through a process of self erosion at high temperatures resulting in loss of material. Also observed were changes attributable to melting of the silicate grains, which smooth down the surface. Oxidation of the bond coat did not appear to influence the failure. These observations were supported by detailed scanning electron microscopy and quantitative chemical composition analysis, differential thermal analysis, and surface roughness measurements.     

Solid particle erosion of HVOF sprayed NiCr and Stellite-6 coatings

Solid particle erosion behavior of the HVOF deposited NiCr and Stellite-6, coatings on boiler tube steels was evaluated. The study was conducted, using an air jet erosion test rig at a velocity of 26 m/s and impingement angle of 30° and 90°, on uncoated as well as HVOF spray coated boiler tube steel (GrA1) at 250 °C. The coatings were harder as compared to substrate steel. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique was used to analyse the eroded surface. Mass losses of the coatings were found marginally higher than the boiler tube steel.