核级不锈钢管座焊接区与母材区疲劳裂纹扩展性能对比研究

焊接接头广泛应用于核电站管座处,而疲劳裂纹扩展是导致焊接接头失效的重要原因之一。因此,研究焊接区材料的疲劳裂纹扩展和寿命预测方法对准确预测焊接接头的寿命具有重要意义。本文以核电厂常用的304L不锈钢焊缝材料为对象,研究不同载荷比、不同取样方向对疲劳裂纹扩展速率的影响;基于试验数据建立焊缝材料的疲劳裂纹扩展速率模型,并与美国机械工程师协会（ASME）标准中奥氏体钢进行对比。结果表明:不同取样方向对焊缝疲劳裂纹扩展速率的影响不大,但载荷比对其有较大影响,较低载荷比下,焊缝的疲劳裂纹扩展速率在某个应力强度因子幅值（?K）前高于母材的疲劳裂纹扩展速率,在其之后则低于母材,而较高载荷比下则恰恰相反。      

氢及氢化物对锆合金疲劳裂纹扩展速率的影响及估算

采用紧凑拉伸（CT）试样．研究了不同氢含量的Zr-4及Zr-Sn-Nb合金在室温下疲劳加载裂纹扩展（dα/dN）行为．用扫描电镜观察了断口形貌。结果表明，氢含量对疲劳裂纹扩展速率影响微弱，疲劳断裂受通常的裂纹萌生、稳态扩展和瞬间断裂机制控制。根据疲劳裂纹扩展机理．导出了裂纹扩展门槛值△Kth的关系式．得出了一个描述疲劳裂纹扩展速率油（dα/dN）与材料性能常数之间的关系式，该关系式可用于预测材料的疲劳裂纹扩展速率。用锆合金实验数据对（dα/dN）预测表达式进行验证．结果表明，预测值与实验值吻合较好。     

X-750合金裂纹扩展速率的测量及SO_4~(2-)离子对裂纹扩展速率的影响

利用直流电压降方法(DCPD)测量X-750合金在空气中的疲劳开裂速率和高温高压水环境中的应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率。介绍利用紧凑拉伸(CT)试样测量裂纹扩展速率的方法。基于滑移-氧化膜破裂-氧化模型,分析裂纹尖端特殊水化学环境形成的原理和过程,探讨水中溶解氧和SO42-离子在该环境形成过程中所起的作用。     

含双边轴向裂纹N18锆合金薄壁管的蠕变裂纹扩展行为研究

通过对含双边轴向裂纹管（DEAT）试样及其加载装置进行设计,基于能量等效和载荷分离原理获得了DEAT试样的能量率回路积分（C*积分）表达式,从而建立了含轴向裂纹薄壁管的蠕变裂纹扩展速率测试方法。基于此方法,采用DEAT试样完成了N18锆合金薄壁管在350℃不同载荷水平下的蠕变裂纹扩展试验。结果表明,蠕变载荷会显著影响N18锆合金的蠕变裂纹扩展速率;蠕变裂纹扩展可分为稳态扩展和快速扩展2个阶段;蠕变裂纹扩展速率（da/dt）与C*积分存在良好的幂律关系,可用于预测N18锆合金管蠕变裂纹扩展行为。      

高温水中氯离子对316L不锈钢应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率的影响

本文采用直流电压降(DCPD)方法,使用恒K(K=27.5 MPa·m1/2)加载方式,在核电厂高温高压水环境中研究了氯离子对316L不锈钢的应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率的影响。实验结果表明:在高温除氧水中,氯离子会加快316L不锈钢的应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率,且当水中存在溶解氧时,氯离子对应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率的影响更明显。     

溶解氧和溶解氢对冷变形690 MA合金应力腐蚀开裂的影响规律

采用直流电压降（DCPD）裂纹长度在线测量技术研究了溶解氧（DO）和溶解氢（DH）对冷变形690 MA合金在360 ℃水环境中应力腐蚀（SCC）裂纹扩展速率（CGR）的影响规律,并结合高分辨微观表征技术观察了裂纹尖端形貌和腐蚀产物特征,解释了溶解气体对SCC的影响机理。结果表明,DH环境下的CGR约为DO环境下的2~4倍。TEM分析表明,冷变形690 MA合金在DH和DO环境中的裂纹尖端形貌相似,裂纹尖端前端均未发现显著的晶界氧化。DH环境下CGR与晶界孔洞密度有较好的对应关系,表明介质中的DH可促进裂纹尖端前端晶界碳化物附近孔洞的生成、降低晶界结合力,进而加速裂纹扩展。     

氢对Ti-2Al-2.5Zr钛合金疲劳裂纹扩展速率的影响

对3种含氢量的Ti-2Al-2.5Zr钛合金的室温疲劳裂纹扩展速率进行了实验测定，并对断裂以后的试样进行了断口观察。实验结果表明：含氢Ti-2Al-2．5Zr的稳态裂纹扩展符合Paris幂律关系；氢对裂纹稳态扩展阶段的疲劳裂纹扩展速率(da／dN)基本没有影响，但对失稳快速扩展行为影响较大；氢含量越高，开始发生疲劳裂纹失稳快速扩展的应力强度因子范围越低；高含氢量的试样在应力强度因子范围(△K)高时发生氢化物的择向开裂，降低了材料的断裂韧性，导致裂纹失稳快速扩展所需的△K比低氢含量所需的△K小。     

核级管道材料高温疲劳裂纹扩展行为实验研究

为研究核级管道材料在500℃以上的高温疲劳裂纹扩展性能,对管道母材、焊缝和热影响区材料进行了高温条件下的疲劳裂纹扩展速率试验,基于概率分析方法获得了考虑不同存活率的概率疲劳裂纹扩展曲线。研究结果表明,高温条件下,管道不同位置区域材料的疲劳裂纹扩展性能存在较为明显的差异,焊缝和热影响区的抗疲劳裂纹扩展能力明显优于母材。试验研究结果可用于核反应堆管道结构安全评估和断裂力学分析。     

敏化处理对316NG奥氏体不锈钢疲劳裂纹扩展行为的影响

在模拟压水堆腐蚀环境条件下,进行了未敏化与725℃敏化处理的316NG奥氏体不锈钢腐蚀疲劳实验。采用扫描电镜(SEM)、能谱分析仪(EDS)、金相显微镜(OM)分析了试样微观结构、偏析相化学成分及裂纹扩展状况,研究了材料疲劳裂纹扩展行为。研究结果表明:敏化处理可显著抑制316NG奥氏体不锈钢在腐蚀环境中的疲劳裂纹扩展;裂纹扩展速率由未经敏化处理的2.21×10~(-4) mm/次减小到敏化处理10min的1.02×10~(-4) mm/次。敏化处理试样的偏析相颗粒数量增多,萌生的支裂纹也增多,导致裂纹扩展速率减小。但是,敏化处理会导致偏析相颗粒中Cr元素含量增加,颗粒附近的基体成为贫铬区,电化学腐蚀加剧,促进裂纹的扩展。     

Inconel690(TT)合金裂纹尖端小范围屈服时的腐蚀疲劳裂纹扩展行为研究

对Inconel 690(TT)合金腐蚀疲劳裂纹尖端塑性区微观结构进行观察,并研究裂纹尖端塑性区及载荷比对模拟压水堆环境下的裂纹扩展行为的影响。裂纹尖端小范围屈服时,模拟压水堆环境对裂纹扩展速率有3倍左右的加速作用。。     

Fatigue Life Assessment Based on Crack Growth Behavior in Reduced Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steel

Crack growth behavior under low cycle fatigue in reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steel, F82H IEA-heat (Fe-8Cr-2W-0.2V-0.02Ta), was investigated to improve the fatigue life assessment method of fusion reactor structural material. Low cycle fatigue test was carried out at room temperature in air at a total strain range of 0.4–1.5% using an hourglass-type miniature fatigue specimen. The relationship between the surface crack length and life fraction was described using one equation independent of the total strain range. Therefore, the fatigue life and residual life could be estimated using the surface crack length. Moreover, the microcrack initiation life could be estimated using the total strain range if there was a one-to-one correspondence between the total strain range and number of cycles to failure. The crack growth rate could be estimated using the total strain range and surface crack length by introducing the concept of the normalized crack growth rate.     

The effect of a single tensile overload on stress corrosion cracking growth of stainless steel in a light water reactor environment

It has been found that a single tensile overload applied during constant load amplitude might cause crack growth rate retardation in various crack propagating experiments which include fatigue test and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) test. To understand the affecting mechanism of a single tensile overload on SCC growth rate of stainless steel or nickel base alloy in light water reactor environment, based on elastic-plastic finite element method (EPFEM), the residual plastic strain in both tips of stationary and growing crack of contoured double cantilever beam (CDCB) specimen was simulated and analyzed in this study. The results of this investigation demonstrate that a residual plastic strain in the region immediately ahead of the crack tips will be produced when a single tensile overload is applied, and the residual plastic strain will decrease the plastic strain rate level in the growing crack tip, which will causes crack growth rate retardation in the tip of SCC.     

Development of fatigue life criteria for experimental fusion reactor first-wall structures

An approach to the rational design of fusion reactor first-wall structures against fatigue crack growth is proposed. The approach is motivated by microstructural observations of fatigue crack growth enhancement in unirradiated materials due to volumetric damage ahead of a propagating crack. Examples are cited that illustrate the effect of mean stress on void nucleation and coalescence, which represent the dominant form of volumetric damage at low temperature, and of grain boundary sliding and creep cavitation, which are the dominant volumetric damage mechanisms at high temperature. The analogy is then drawn between these forms of fatigue crack growth enhancement and those promoted by irradiation exposure in the fusion reactor environment, such as helium embrittlement and atomic displacement. An enhanced strain range is suggested as a macroscopic measure of the reduction in fatigue life due to the higher fatigue crack growth rates. The enhanced strain range permits a separation of volumetric and cyclic effects, and assists in the assignment of rational design factors to each effect. A series of experiments are outlined which should provide the numerical values of the parameters for the enhanced strain range.     

The frequency effect on the fatigue crack growth rate of 304 stainless steel

Under cyclic loading condition, the fatigue crack growth (FCG) rate governed by stress intensity factor and stress ratio is well known; Walker’s equation, Forman’s equation and Elber’s equation are typical formulae to describe the fatigue crack growth rate. However, the loading frequency effect on the fatigue crack growth rate has yet to be explored. Recently, studies have focused on the loading frequency effect on some visco-elastic materials, and have provided a clearer understanding of the frequency effect on the fatigue crack growth rate. In a physical sense, knowledge about the loading frequency effect on the fatigue crack growth rate for 304 stainless steel is still lacking. James conducted a lot of experiments, and through data analysis, he concluded an evaluation equation which is based upon the experimental illustration. In this study, the physical properties of the material are used to illustrate the modification of fatigue crack growth rate, and a new formula which is based upon the modified Forman’s equation, is provided.     

Effect of corrosion potential on the corrosion fatigue crack growth behaviour of low-alloy steels in high-temperature water

The low-frequency corrosion fatigue (CF) crack growth behaviour of different low-alloy reactor pressure vessel steels was characterized under simulated boiling water reactor conditions by cyclic fatigue tests with pre-cracked fracture mechanics specimens. The experiments were performed in the temperature range of 240-288 °C with different loading parameters at different electrochemical corrosion potentials (ECPs). Modern high-temperature water loops, on-line crack growth monitoring (DCPD) and fractographical analysis by SEM were used to quantify the cracking response. In this paper the effect of ECP on the CF crack growth behaviour is discussed and compared with the crack growth model of General Electric (GE). The ECP mainly affected the transition from fast (‘high-sulphur’) to slow (‘low-sulphur’) CF crack growth, which appeared as critical frequencies ν_crit = f(ΔK, R, ECP) and ΔK-thresholds ΔK_EAC = f(ν, R, ECP) in the cycle-based form and as a critical air fatigue crack growth rate da/dt_Air,crit in the time-domain form. The critical crack growth rates, frequencies, and ΔK_EAC-thresholds were shifted to lower values with increasing ECP. The CF crack growth rates of all materials were conservatively covered by the ‘high-sulphur’ CF line of the GE-model for all investigated temperatures and frequencies. Under most system conditions, the model seems to reasonably well predict the experimentally observed parameter trends. Only under highly oxidizing conditions (ECP ? 0 mV_SHE) and slow strain rates/low loading frequencies the GE-model does not conservatively cover the experimentally gathered crack growth rate data. Based on the GE-model and the observed cracking behaviour a simple time-domain superposition-model could be used to develop improved reference CF crack growth curves for codes.     

Japanese Contributions to Fields of Predicting and Combating Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC) of Steels in LWR Water

Two major currents of the EAC relevant activities in Japan are reviewed in some chronological manner. One is the studies on the acceleration of fatigue crack growth in LWR. The work was first pioneered early in Japan, and extensive collaborative works have followed interacting with the international activities, which have yielded a clear views on the potential issues of the RPV structural steels used in the domestic NPPs. Another is the development of materials and techniques to combat the stress corrosion cracking of the structural materials in LWR water environment. Extensive collaboration among the government agencies, utilities, industries and academic societies lead the issues to a dramatic solution in rather short period. Both of those two aspects are stressed to have generic significance in the present and future nuclear technology.     

Evaluation of the mitigation effect of hydrogen water chemistry in BWRs on the low-frequency corrosion fatigue crack growth in low-alloy steels

The mitigation effect of hydrogen water chemistry (HWC) on the low-frequency corrosion fatigue crack growth behaviour of low-alloy steels was investigated under those critical boiling water reactor (BWR) system conditions, where fast corrosion fatigue crack growth significantly above the ASME XI ‘wet’ reference fatigue crack growth curves was observed under normal water chemistry conditions (NWC). The experiments were performed under simulated BWR conditions at temperatures of 250, 274 or 288 °C. Modern high-temperature water loops, on-line crack growth monitoring (DCPD) and fractographical analysis by scanning electron microscope were used to quantify the cracking response. HWC resulted in a significant drop of low-frequency corrosion fatigue crack growth rates by at least one order of magnitude with respect to NWC conditions and is therefore a promising and powerful mitigation method.     

Towards an elastic-plastic fracture mechanics predictive capability for reactor piping

Intergranular stress corrosion cracks have been discovered in the recirculation bypass piping and core spray lines of several boiling water reactor (BWR) plants. These cracks initiate in heat-affected zones of girth welds and grow circumferentially by combined stress corrosion and fatigue. Reactor piping is mainly type 304 stainless steel, a material which exhibits high ductility and toughness. A test program described in this paper demonstrates that catastrophic crack growth in these materials is preceded by considerable amounts of stable crack growth accompanied by large plastic deformation. Thus, conventional linear elastic fracture mechanics, which only applies to the initiation of crack growth in materials behaving in a predominantly linear elastic fashion, is inadequate for a failure analysis of reactor piping.This paper is based upon research initiated by a need to develop a realistic failure prediction and a way to delineate leak-before-break conditions for reactor piping. An effective engineering solution for the type of cracks that have been discovered in BWR plants was first developed. This was based upon a simple net section flow stress criterion. Subsequent work to develop an elastic-plastic fracture mechanics methodology has also been pursued. A survey of progress being made is described in this paper. This work is based on the use of finite element models together with experimental results to identify criteria appropriate for the onset of crack extension and for stable crack growth. A number of criteria have been evaluated. However, the optimum fracture criterion has not yet been determined, even for conditions which do not include all of the complications involved in reactor piping.     

高温气冷堆石墨材料的疲劳裂纹扩展综述

迄今为止,各国的高温气冷堆均采用石墨作为其堆芯活性区及反射层的主要结构材料。由于堆内的高温高辐照环境,石墨构件一般承受较高的热应力及辐照应力,这些应力的循环变化将引起疲劳载荷。