Variation among physical,chemical and technological properties in three Sicilian cultivars of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Three Sicilian chickpea cultivars (‘Calia’, ‘Etna’ and ‘Principe’) were evaluated for physical, chemical and technological properties. Whereas no substantial differences were ascertained on seeds chemical composition, the cultivars greatly differed in terms of seed size, specific surface area (SSA) and seed coat incidence. These last two properties affected the technological properties of the seeds. In particular, a high SSA (‘Calia’) contributed to a faster softening, whilst a great coat thickness (‘Etna’) delayed both hydration and softening rate. The time required to obtain an acceptable firmness (cooking time) was greatly reduced by presoaking the seeds in salt solution (0.5% NaCl or NHCO₃). ‘Calia’ required the lowest cooking time when soaked in distilled water or in 0.5% NaCl. Presoaking seed in NaHCO₃ allowed halving the cooking time in all cultivars.     

Electrical Conductivity,Water Absorption,Leaching, and Color Change of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) during Soaking with Ultrasound Treatment

The properties of soaking water of some cereals under high temperature were determined, but limited information is available on chickpeas in the literature. Change in electrical conductivity, turbidity, color, and soluble solids content of soaking water of chickpeas were studied at 87, 92, and 97°C without ultrasound, and with 25 kHz frequency and different ultrasound powers (100–300 W) for 260 min. Water absorption and color values of chickpea seeds were also studied during soaking. All the properties of soaking water and chickpea seeds were significantly (P < 0.05) affected by temperature, ultrasound treatment, and power of ultrasounds indicating leaching of some nutritional and anti-nutritional compounds. The moisture absorption rate of chickpeas increased with the increase of temperature and power of ultrasound, while color of chickpeas changed inversely with soaking water. Results showed that leaching and reabsorption of some nutritional compounds occur simultaneously and ultrasounds can be used to enhance cooking operations.     

Phytic acid content of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and black gram (Vigna mungo): varietal differences and effect of domestic processing and cooking methods

Phytic acid content of various cultivars showed a narrow variation: 7.48-8.00 g kg^?1 and 6.47-6.68 g kg^?1 for chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) and black gram (Vigna mungo L), respectively. Phytic acid was lowered significantly by the common methods of domestic processing and cooking including soaking, cooking, autoclaving and sprouting of the legume grains. Sprouting had the most marked phytic acid lowering effect followed by autoclaving and soaking. Cooking of soaked seeds lowered phytic acid by 20-26% in chickpea and 35-40% in black gram grains whereas the loss was 7-11% and 6-9% in these pulses, respectively, when unsoaked seeds were cooked.     

Processing parameter optimization for obtaining dry beans with reduced cooking time

The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of processing beans by soaking and blanching in salt solutions on the quality parameters of the common bean and, in order to obtain a dry product with a reduced cooking time using experimental design techniques. A Plackett and Burman design was used to evaluate the effects of nine factors, soaking, blanching and drying under different conditions, in bean processing. A central composite rotational 2³ design was used with the factors of soaking time, concentration of NaHCO₃ and drying temperature. An increase in the concentration of NaHCO₃ from 0 to 4 g.100⁻¹ mL reduced the cooking time by 10 min. However, increasing the NaHCO₃ concentration increased the level of damage to the product and darkened the bean seed coat, producing greater color differences in the processed bean. The selected conditions for the production of dry quick cooking beans was a time of 13.1 h, a concentration of NaHCO₃ in the soaking solution of 2.3 g.100 mL⁻¹ and a drying temperature of 50 °C. Under the select conditions, it was possible to reduce the cooking time by 53%, with of 5.36 g.100 g⁻¹ of damaged grains and color difference of 8.39.     

Fitting Fick’s model to analyze water diffusion into chickpeas during soaking with ultrasound treatment

Fick’s model together with Arrhenius relationship were successfully used to evaluate water absorption of chickpea during soaking at a temperature range of 20-97 °C with 25 kHz 100 W, 40 kHz 100 W and 25 kHz 300 W ultrasound treatments. Use of ultrasound, increase in ultrasound power and soaking temperature significantly (P < 0.05) increased the water diffusion coefficient (D_eff) of chickpea during soaking. Average gelatinization temperature of chickpea was found as 61.47 °C. Activation energy (E_a) values of chickpea for below and above gelatinization temperature were found to be 28.69 and 9.34 kJ mol⁻¹, respectively. Ultrasound treatments significantly decreased the soaking time of chickpea.     

Effect of soaking and hydrothermal processing methods on the levels of antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of Bauhinia purpurea L. seeds

The effects of various domestic processing methods such as soaking, cooking and autoclaving on the levels of certain antinutritional factors and in vitro protein digestibility of seeds of Bauhinia purpurea L., an underutilised legume collected from South India, were investigated. The raw seeds were found to contain antinutritional factors like total free phenolics (2.75 g/100 g), tannins (2.35 g/100 g), phytic acid (692 mg/100 g) and flatulence factors, raffinose (0.54 g/100 g), stachyose (1.17 g/100 g) and verbascose (0.95 g/100 g). Soaking the seeds in distilled water caused maximum reduction in the phytic acid content (37%), whereas soaking in NaHCO₃ solution reduced significant levels of phenolics and tannins (72% and 78%, respectively). A reduction in the levels of oligosaccharides (raffinose by 63%, stachyose by 42% and verbascose by 79%) was observed during cooking. Of the attempted treatments, autoclaving appeared to be most effective in reducing levels of all the investigated antinutrients, except phytic acid, and also improved the in vitro protein digestibility of B. purpurea seeds.     

Physicochemical,functional, thermal and structural properties of isolated Kabuli chickpea proteins as affected by processing approaches

Kabuli chickpea seeds were processed by soaking only and soaking followed either by pressure cooking or roasting. Proteins were isolated from both raw and processed seeds, and the effects of these processing approaches on the physicochemical, functional, thermal and structural properties as well as SDS‐PAGE profiles of the protein isolates were investigated. Thermal processes significantly (P < 0.05) decreased protein yield, content, colour difference, emulsifying properties and protein solubility of the protein isolates, but increased lightness and water and oil absorption capacities. Protein thermal properties, secondary structure and SDS‐PAGE banding patterns were significantly changed in thermal‐processed samples, especially those that were pressure cooked. No endothermic peak was detected in differential scanning calorimetry thermograms, and peak intensity of amide I absorption band at 1600–1700 cm^?1 in Fourier transform infrared spectra reduced. The results reveal that pressure cooking had more pronounced effects on the properties of the protein isolates than other processing approaches.     

THE EFFECT OF PHYTATE AND FIBER CONTENT ON COOKING QUALITY IN FABA BEANS

Seventy-six faba bean lines were analyzed for their phytic acid content in the whole seeds and in the cotyledons. The fiber content was also determined in 17 Faba bean lines. The seed weights; % testa weight-of the seeds; and % moisture uptake (water imbibition) after overnight soaking in distilled water or increasing concentrations of EDTA solutions were measured and recorded. The relation between the above mentioned dependent variables and the cooking time for seed softening (min.) in 76 faba bean lines was studied and simple and multiple correlation coefficients were computed with a total of 70 operations. Significant correlation coefficients were found between phytic acid content in the cotyledons, % testae weight of the seeds; moisture uptake after soaking the seeds in distilled water overnight and cooking time for 50% softening (min). The faba bean lines 606/ 303; 606/ 308, 608/ 334, 609/ 350, proved to be of excellent cooking quality, since their cooking time for 50% seed softening did not exceed 10 min.     

Effects of hardshell character on cooking time of common beans grown in the semiarid highlands of Mexico

The present study was undertaken to develop a protocol to screen bean germplasm for the hardshell character, evaluate the effect of hardshell on cooking time and study the relationship between hardshell and other seed characteristics in bean genotypes grown in the semiarid highlands of Mexico. Between 50 and 75% of the variation in cooking time of recently harvested beans was explained by differences in the degree of water absorption after soaking for 18 h. Seed coat brightness was negatively correlated with water absorption and increased cooking time in two of the three populations evaluated. The difference in cooking time and water absorption between scarified (hilum perforated) and unscarified seed of different genotypes would indicate that the hardshell characteristic plays a major role in extending the cooking time of beans. This study indicates that when seeds have an initial moisture content of 90 g kg^?1 seed or less, the hardshell problem is easily detected after soaking for 18 h, while the problem is rarely detected when initial seed moisture levels are 120 g kg^?1 or higher. Selection against the hardshell characteristic could be practised in bean germplasm using this information as part of a protocol to shorten the cooking time of beans grown in the Mexican highlands.     

The cyanogenic glycoside contents of raw and processed limabean varieties

Eighteen varieties of limabean (Phaseolus lunatus), were subjected to the processes of cooking, autoclaving, soaking in water and germination for 6 days. The effects of these processes on the free and bound HCN contents of the raw limabean varieties were investigated. Total HCN in the raw varieties ranged from 265 mg kg^?1 in TPL 071-33 and 553 mg kg^?1 in TPL 13. Considerable variability was encountered in the different varieties and processing effects tended to make these varietal differences even more pronounced. Autoclaving gave a mean total loss of 53·9% in total HCN content while cooking effected a 64·8%–81·9% loss in total HCN content. Drastic reductions in both free and bound HCN contents were obtained in all cooked varieties. Soaking for 2 days effected the highest HCN loss in TPL 2 (40·1%), closely followed by TPL 13 (39·7%) and then TPL 3 (35·4%). All varieties, by the sixth day of soaking, lost between 61·3 and 86·4% of their total HCN contents. The effect of germination on HCN contents increased progressively from a mean total loss of 24·5% in day 2 to 55·6% in day 4 and 76·1% in day 6. Cooking and germination for 6 days appeared to be equally effective in reducing free and bound contents. Autoclaving was the least effective of all the processes studied.     

Relationships Between Selected Properties of Seeds,Flours, and Starches from Different Chickpea Cultivars

ABSTRACT

Five desi (PBG-1, PDG-4, PDG-3, GL-769, and GPF-2) and one kabuli type (L-550) chickpea cultivars were evaluated for their seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, swelling capacity, cooking time, and instrumental textural properties (hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness). Flour was prepared from these chickpea cultivars and various physicochemical and functional properties were determined. The pasting (pasting temperature, peak viscosity, breakdown, and final viscosity) and gelatinization (T _o, T _p, T _c, and ΔH _gel) properties of these flours were measured using Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), respectively. Starch was also isolated from chickpea cultivars and evaluated for amylose content, swelling power, solubility, and syneresis values. Physicochemical, cooking, and instrumental textural properties of seeds of different chickpea cultivars were related to physicochemical, gelatinization, and pasting properties of their flours and physicochemical properties of their starches. Selected properties of chickpea seeds were significantly correlated with the properties of their starches and flours. Hardness value of soaked chickpea seeds was positively correlated to cooking time, seed mass, seed volume, hydration, and swelling capacity (p < 0.01). Water solubility index (WSI) of chickpea flours was positively correlated to seed mass, volume, hydration capacity, and hardness value (p < 0.05). Selected instrumental textural parameters of seeds had positive correlation with ΔH _gel of flours (p < 0.01). Peak viscosity of flours showed positive correlation to breakdown, final viscosity, bulk density, and negative correlation to cohesiveness of soaked seeds (p < 0.01). Final viscosity showed negative correlation to bulk density and water absorption index (WAI) (p < 0.01) of flours.     

Effect of various indigenous processing methods on the α‐galactoside and mono‐ and disaccharide content of an Indian tribal pulse,Mucuna pruriens var utilis

The effect of various treatments, such as soaking in different solutions, cooking of raw and soaked seeds, autoclaving of raw and soaked seeds, dehusking of water‐soaked seeds, fermentation of water‐soaked/dehusked seeds, autoclaving of fermented seeds, dry heating of raw seeds and germination, on the levels of mono‐ and disaccharides and α‐galactosides in two varieties of an Indian tribal legume, mucuna bean (Mucuna pruriens var utilis), was investigated. The levels of raffinose, stachyose and verbascose decreased under various treatments. Among the different soaking and cooking/autoclaving treatments, tamarind pulp extract soaking and sodium bicarbonate solution soaking followed by autoclaving procedures were the most effective for removing α‐galactosides (68.4–70.9 and 68.5–68.9% respectively). The lowest reduction of α‐galactosides (8.4–17.2%) was observed in dry‐heated samples. Germination for more than 72 h resulted in the highest reduction of total α‐galactosides (93.6 and 89.6% in white and black varieties respectively). During the germination process, glucose, fructose and sucrose concentrations increased significantly. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Polyphenols of chickpea and blackgram as affected by domestic processing and cooking methods

The effects of soaking, cooking, autoclaving and sprouting on the polyphenol contents of eight cultivars of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and four of blackgram (Vigna mungo) were studied. All the treatments reduced the polyphenols of the legume seeds, but to a varying extent. Sprouting and autoclaving had the most pronounced effect; ordinary cooking and soaking were relatively less effective.     

HYDRATION KINETICS OF LUPIN (LUPINUS ALBUS) SEEDS

The hydration kinetics of lupin (Lupinus albus) seeds was studied by soaking in water at temperatures of 20, 30, 40 and 50C (±1C) in constant‐temperature water bath for 9 to 12 h. The weight gain due to the hydration process was determined in terms of moisture content (% dry basis). Water absorption rate was high at the early stage of hydration (20–60 min depending on temperature) followed by a decreased rate and finally approaching equilibrium condition. Peleg's equation adequately described the hydration characteristics of lupin seeds under the experimental condition (R² = 0.96 to 0.99). The Peleg rate constant k₁ decreased from 2.537 to 0.241 min/%, while Peleg capacity constant k₂ increased from 0.0036 to 0.0070/% significantly (P < 0.05) with an increase in temperature from 20 to 50C, demonstrating that the water absorption rate increased and water absorption capacity decreased with increase in temperature. The temperature dependence of k₁ and k₂ was described by Arrhenius type equation with R² values of 0.98 and 0.97, respectively, and activation energy of 60.44 kJ/mol. The agreement between experimental and estimated values of the hydration data (R² = 0.97 to 0.99) confirmed that Peleg's equation could be used to describe the hydration characteristics of lupin seeds under the experimental conditions considered.     

Chemical, Physical and Sensory Characteristics of Peanut Milk as Affected by Processing Conditions

The influence of processing conditions on chemical, physical and sensory characteristics of aqueous extracts of peanuts (peanut milk) prepared for lactic bacterial fermentation was investigated. Soaking peanuts in 1.0% NaHCO₃ before extraction resulted in a lighter colored milk, and homogenization enhanced lightness. Cooking peanuts before grinding reduced total solids and protein contents of milk. Hexanal concentration was greatly reduced by cooking peanuts for 10 min. The most satisfactory conditions for preparing peanut milk consisted of soaking peanuts in 0.5% NaHCO₃, cooking for 10 min and homogenizing the extract at 4000 psi.     

Effect of soaking,cooking and crude α-galactosidase treatment on the oligosaccharide content of cowpea flours

Abstract : The effects of soaking, cooking and crude α-galactosidase treatment on the level of stachyose and raffinose present in cowpea flours were investigated. Soaking for 16 h resulted in an average reduction of 26·2% for stachyose and 28·0% for raffinose, while cooking for 50 min resulted in a reduction of 28·6% for stachyose and 44·0% for raffinose. On the other hand, treatment of cowpea flours for 2 h at 50°C with crude fungal preparations having an α-galactosidase activity equivalent to 64 units μg^?1 protein, brought about a mean decrease of 82·3% for stachyose and 93·3% for raffinose. These results show that the enzyme treatment was more effective in removing the raffinose-family oligosaccharides and hence could be a useful technique for control of the flatulence-inducing activity of cowpea flours.     

Effect of soaking and boiling treatments on the quality of winged bean seed

Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L) DC) seeds were soaked for 24 h in distilled water, 30 or 50 g litre^?1 rice husk ash suspension or solutions of 10 or 20 g litre^?1 baking soda, or 5 or 10 g litre^?1 NaHCO₃. Seeds were then boiled for 30 min in these solutions, then either washed and resoaked in distilled water or peeled, washed for 24 h and resoaked for 24 h in distilled water. The p^H and level of leached solids increased during boiling. The colour of the bean cotyledon remained light when boiled in distilled water or rice husk ash suspension, but became darker when boiled in the alkaline solutions. Boiling in distilled water or rice husk ash suspensions did not render the bean sufficiently soft, whereas boiling in the alkaline solutions produced adequately soft seeds. There was no significant difference in tenderness of beans given further processing by resoaking or peeling and resoaking compared with boiling. The nature of the cooking liquid had no significant effect on the protein content of the seeds.     

Extrusion and iron bioavailability in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

The effect of extrusion cooking (14% moisture and 130°C processing temperature) and of home-cooking on chickpea iron bioavailability was studied by the hemoglobin regeneration method in anemic rats. The iron pool was calculated from hemoglobin concentration and animal weight, and iron bioavailability from the relationship between iron pool gain (Δ pool) and mg of ingested iron. Iron bioavailability relative to ferrous sulfate was calculated by the following equation: Y=63.989 e^−0.0458X [Y= % absorbed; X=ingested Fe (mg)] on the basis of the results of control groups. The results showed that there was no significant difference between groups (extruded and cooked) in terms of mean percentage of iron bioavailability relative to Fe₂SO₄. We conclude that chickpea is a good source of iron and extrusion cooking is a process comparable to home-cooking in terms of iron bioavailability.     

Phytase–phytate–pectin hypothesis and quality of legumes cooked in calcium solutions

Hard‐to‐cook and easy‐to‐cook bean and lentil seeds were boiled in water containing calcium ions at concentrations of 0, 40, 80, 120 and 160 mg L^?1 and their texture and concentration of phytate and various peptic compounds were measured. In order to minimise matrix effects, hard‐to‐cook seeds were prepared from easy‐to‐cook seeds by soaking them at 50 °C. It was found that, as calcium ion concentration increased, phytate concentration decreased and seed hardness increased. Also, during soaking and cooking, phytate and peptic compounds were leached into the water. Losses were larger for hard‐to‐cook seeds than for easy‐to‐cook seeds. These results are consistent with the proposed theory that the formation of hard‐to‐cook legume seeds involves an interaction among divalent cations, phytate and peptic compounds, which is based on the phytase–phytate–pectin hypothesis. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Saponin content of chickpea and black gram: Varietal differences and effects of processing and cooking methods

Differences were observed in saponin contents of eight varieties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and four of black gram (Phaseolus mungo). Common domestic processing and cooking treatments reduced the saponin level of the pulses significantly. Sprouting had the most pronounced effect followed by autoclaving, soaking and ordinary cooking. Cooking of soaked as well as unsoaked seeds had a similar diminishing effect.