Aflatoxin production in three selected samples of triticale,wheat and rye grown in Argentina

Little is known about mycotoxin contamination of triticale, a hybrid resulting from crossing wheat and rye. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate triticale as a substrate for aflatoxin accumulation in comparison with its parents. Aflatoxin (B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂) accumulation curves were obtained for the three substrates inoculated with Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999 and incubated at 25 °C and water activity 0.925 for 10 weeks. Wheat and triticale were poor substrates for aflatoxin production. Rye was more prone than the other substrates to fast colonisation by A parasiticus and accumulated larger aflatoxin quantities over the whole incubation period. The maximum aflatoxin concentration in rye (11 840 µg kg⁻¹) was significantly larger (p < 0.05) than those obtained in wheat (2150 µg kg⁻¹) and triticale (2850 µg kg⁻¹). © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Screening of aflatoxins in duck feedstuffs in West Java,Indonesia

During the period 1979-1985, incoming feed ingredients (some of imported origin) for duck diets were screened for their aflatoxin level. As a result. records of aflatoxin data from 533 corn, 88 rice, 136 rice bran, 47 wheat pollard, 207 soya bean meal. 55 copra meal and 166 fish meal samples were obtained. Aflatoxin B ₁ was the predominant form, the incidence of samples containing it ranging from 69 to 94%; then accompanied by aflatoxin G₁, 37 to 81%: by B ₂, 33 to 70%; by G₂, 13 to 66%. Levels of total aflatoxin > 20 μg kg ^?1 were most frequently encountered in corn (71%) and copra meal (58%), followed by soya bean meal (20%), wheat pollard (15%), rice bran (12%), fish meal (10%) and rice (4%). Most feed ingredients contained aflatoxins < 100 μg kg^?1 except in corn of which 202 samples (38%) had a higher level. Corn is concluded to be the main source of alfatoxin contamination in corn-based mixed feeds.     

Mould infection and aflatoxin contamination of the peanut kernels harvested from spring and fall crops as affected by artificial inoculation of the seeded kernels with Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger

Spring and fall crops of peanut are grown each year in Taiwan. Mould infection and aflatoxin contamination of crops as affected by artificial inoculation of the seeded kernels with conidia of Aspergillus flavus, A niger and a combination of A flavus and A niger (inocula > 10⁵ CFU kernel⁻¹) were determined. Three cultivars, ie Tainan 9, Tainan 11 and Tainan 12, were consecutively grown for fall 1996, spring 1997, fall 1997 and spring 1998 crops with green vegetable pea for rotation. In crops from uninoculated kernels (control), percentages of germination and harvested plants were higher in spring crops than in fall crops. Inoculation with A niger alone or with A flavus resulted in various levels of seed and seedling mortality and lower yields of peanut pods than yields of the other inoculation treatments. When harvested and sized (US No 1), kernels were subjected to examination for mould colonisation and analysis of aflatoxin content. Fairly low percentages were colonised and aflatoxin contents were low or non-detectable. Colonisation and aflatoxin content were independent of artificial inoculation. Average aflatoxin contents in the kernels harvested from all cultivars and crops ranged from 0 to 6.1 µg kg⁻¹. However, the highest levels of aflatoxin content among samples of the four crops were 4.0, 18.2, 9.6 and 36.7 µg kg⁻¹, respectively. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Incidence of aflatoxins,ochratoxin A,zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol in food commodities from Turkey

Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria species which produce toxic metabolites, create a big problem in terms of the production of reliable human food and animal feeds. This study was conducted to determine the mycotoxin contents of foodstuff collected uniformly in each year of 2017, 2018, and 2019 in Şebinkarahisar, Turkey by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The highest total aflatoxin, and aflatoxin B1 were determined in red pepper in 2018 with 6.47 ± 0.07 and 4.58 ± 0.01 μg kg⁻¹, respectively while the highest ochratoxin amount was obtained again in the red paper in 2019 with 7.97 ± 0.57 μg kg⁻¹. Contrarily, the highest incidence of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol was determined in wheat and corn flour with 12.49 ± 0.3 and 397.6 ± 7.34 μg kg⁻¹, respectively. Weather changes have also been found to affect the incidence of mycotoxin. But, determined mycotoxin values do not pose a risk according to the Turkish Food Codex Contaminants Regulation.     

Occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins in cereals from markets of Hebei province of China

Fumonisins B₁, B₂ and B₃ (FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃) and aflatoxins B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁) and G₂ (AFG₂) are both major mycotoxins of food concern, because of their wide range of concentration and possible co-occurrence. Therefore, a contamination survey in corn and wheat flour by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was carried out. Quantification of fumonisins and aflatoxins was based on internal calibration (by the use of ¹³C₃₄-fumonisin) and external calibration, respectively. Fumonisins were detected in 95% of corn samples and in 7% of wheat flour samples, with the mean level (FB₁?+?FB₂?+?FB₃) of 441?µg?kg^?1 and 0.09?µg?kg^?1, respectively. Low levels of aflatoxins were detected in 37% of the samples with a mean level (B₁?+?B₂?+?G₁?+?G₂) of 0.12?µg?kg^?1. Fumonisins and aflatoxins were not detected in 29% of the samples analysed. Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisins and aflatoxins was observed in 12% of samples.     

The Nutritive Value of Mango Seed Kernels for Starting Chicks

Raw mango ( Mangifera indica L) seed kernels were found to contain tannins (56·5 g kg⁻¹ DM), cyanogenic glucosides (64 mg kg⁻¹ DM), oxalates (42 mg kg⁻¹ DM) and trypsin inhibitory activity (20 TIU g⁻¹ DM). The contents of these anti-nutritive factors were lowered by both soaking and boiling treatments, but boiling was more effective. The in vitro protein digestibility (26·3%) and apparent metabolisable energy (7·88 MJ kg⁻¹ DM) values of raw kernels were low, and these parameters were improved by soaking and boiling. The observed improvements paralleled reductions in tannin contents, indicating that tannins are largely responsible for the poor nutritive value of raw kernels. In experiment 1, diets containing 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 g kg⁻¹ raw mango seed kernels that replaced maize were fed to 7-day-old White Leghorn cockerels for 14 days. Inclusion of more than 50 g kg⁻¹ raw kernels lowered ( P< 0·05) the weight gains, feed intake and feed efficiency of chicks. High level inclusion of raw kernels had toxic effects, as evidenced by increased mortality. In experiment 2, soaking and boiling treatments improved ( P< 0·05) feed intake of chicks fed on diets containing 100 g kg⁻¹ kernels and reduced mortality. Feed/gain was unaffected by processing. Soaking had no effect, whereas boiling of kernels improved the weight gains. However, weight gains of chicks receiving diets containing 100 g kg⁻¹ boiled kernels were numerically, though non-significantly, lower than those of the maize-control group. It is concluded that raw mango seed kernels are unsuitable as a feed ingredient in chick diets and, that soaking and boiling do not completely overcome the anti-nutritive effects of raw kernels.     

Survey of fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 in conventional and organic retail corn products in Spain and Italy and estimated dietary exposure

A survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of fumonisin B₁, B₂ and B₃ during 2007 in 186 samples of organic and conventional locally available corn products. Samples included baby food (n = 62), corn flour (11), cornflakes (23), pasta (14), cookies (17) and other corn products (59) were obtained from popular markets of Valencia (Spain) and Perugia (Italy). The analytical method used pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with a triple quadrupole (QqQ) analyser. Of the 104 Spanish samples, 22% contained levels in the range of 2–449 µg kg^?1, 2–229 µg kg^?1 and 6–105 µg kg^?1 for FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃, respectively, while 19 (23%) of the 82 Italian samples were positive with quantifiable levels between 2–235 µg kg^?1, 3–187 µg kg^?1, and 4–40 µg kg^?1 for fumonisins B₁, B₂ and B₃, respectively. Overall, none of the Italian samples and only one organic baby food sample from a Spanish market was above the maximum permitted levels established by European legislation. Fumonisins were found mostly in corn flour followed by cookies and cornflakes. Eleven samples from Spain and nine samples from Italy were organic products, being contaminated the 72% and 77% of the samples, respectively. Analysis of the results showed that levels of fumonisins in corn products were similar in Italy and Spain. The safety of fumonisin intake through corn products was demonstrated by the calculation of the estimated daily intake of both populations considering organic and conventional products separately, which ranged from 1.7 × 10^?3 to 0.72 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 and comparing them with the provisional maximum total daily intake (PMTDI) of 2 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 established by the European Union.     

Influence of detoxified Indian vetch (Lathyrus sativus L.) on sensory and protein quality characteristics of composite flour chapatti

We studied the effects of different processing treatments, including soaking, steeping, boiling in water and germination and chemical treatments with H₂SO₄, HCl, lime and NaHCO₃, on the removal of a neurotoxin, β‐N‐oxalyl‐L ‐α,β‐diaminopropionic acid (β‐ODAP), from Indian vetch (Iv) and addition of detoxified Iv in chapatti. The toxin level was quantified by using thin‐layer chromatographic and spectrophotometric methods. Maximum removal was observed after steeping in water at 60–70°C for 8 h with seven rinses. The samples were dried, milled into flour and added to chapatti at different levels. Sensory attributes revealed that the chapattis were most acceptable by judges when supplemented with up to 200 g kg⁻¹ of flour. The protein level of Iv flour increased from 124 to 174 g kg⁻¹ as result of supplementation at 300 g kg⁻¹. Biological studies with albino rats showed that detoxified Iv had a better impact on nutritional status. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Intake of aflatoxins through the consumption of peanut products in Brazil

To estimate daily intake of aflatoxins from peanut products consumed by the population of Paraná State (Brazil), 100 samples of peanut products were collected between July 2006 and April 2007. Aflatoxins were determined by an HPLC method with fluorescence detection. There was a 50% occurrence of aflatoxins (B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂) in concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 113?ng?g^?1, with 13 samples with levels above 20?ng?g^?1. Intake was calculated for average and high adult consumers of peanut products and it was compared with provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). The estimated probable daily intake (PDI) for aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) varied from 0.6 to 10.4?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, exceeding the PMTDI of 0.4?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1 for carriers of hepatitis B virus.     

Moulds and mycotoxins in rice from the Swedish retail market

A survey of moulds and mycotoxins was performed on 99 rice samples taken from the Swedish retail market. The main objective was to study the mould and mycotoxin content in basmati rice and rice with a high content of fibre. Samples of jasmine rice as well as long-grain rice were also included. The samples were analysed for their content of ochratoxin A (high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)), aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ (HPLC, RIDA®QUICK), and mould (traditional cultivation methods in combination with morphological analysis). The majority of samples were sampled according to European Commission Regulation 401/2006. Subsamples were pooled and mixed before milling and both mould and mycotoxin analyses were performed on milled rice. The results showed that the majority of basmati rice (71%) and many jasmine rice samples (20%) contained detectable levels of aflatoxin B₁ (level of quantification = 0.1 µg aflatoxin kg^?1 rice). Two samples of jasmine rice and ten basmati rice samples contained levels over the regulated European maximum limits of 2 µg kg^?1 for aflatoxin B₁ or 4 µg kg^?1 for total aflatoxins. Aspergillus was the most common mould genus isolated, but also Penicillium, Eurotium, Wallemia, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Alternaria, and Trichotecium were found. The presence of Aspergillus flavus in 21% of the samples indicates that incorrect management of rice during production and storage implies a risk of mould growth and subsequent production of aflatoxin. Rough estimates showed that high rice consumers may have an intake of 2–3 ng aflatoxin kg^?1 bodyweight and day^?1 from rice alone. This survey shows that aflatoxin is a common contaminant in rice imported to Europe.     

Single-Laboratory Validation for the Determination of Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 in Foods Based on Immunoaffinity Column and Liquid Chromatography with Postcolumn Derivatization and Fluorescence Detection

This study presents a method validation procedure for the determination of aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ in hazelnut, hazelnut paste, walnut, peanut, pistachio, corn, and wheat. The method consisting of clean-up with immunoaffinity column, high performance liquid chromatography with postcolumn derivatization and fluorescence detection was validated in accordance with Commission Regulation 2004/882/EC. The selectivity, linearity, decision limit, detection capability, detection and quantification limits, precision, recovery, ruggedness, and measurement uncertainty of the method were determined. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values (μg/kg) were: aflatoxin B₁, 0.02, 0.07; aflatoxin B₂, 0.01, 0.02; aflatoxin G₁, 0.02, 0.07; and aflatoxin G₂, 0.01, 0.03. The relative standard deviation values for the repeatability and within-laboratory reproducibility were below 4 and 5 %, respectively. The recovery values of the spiked samples ranged from 80 to 105 %. These results complied with minimum performance criteria established by regulation 2006/401/EC. Therefore, the procedure can be implemented for the routine analysis of aflatoxins in the studied matrices.     

Risk assessment of exposure to mycotoxins (aflatoxins and fumonisins) through corn tortilla intake in Veracruz City (Mexico)

This study aimed to assess aflatoxin and fumonisin intake through corn tortilla consumption in Veracruz city. Between October 2013 and February 2015, a total of 120 corn tortilla samples (2 kg samples, 40 samples per year) were randomly collected. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector. A probability density function (PDF) was used for describing corn tortilla intake, body weight of the Veracruz city population, mycotoxin content of corn tortilla samples and estimated mycotoxin daily intake. The Monte Carlo method with 10,000 iterations was employed to assess the population exposure risk. The highest level of total aflatoxins (AFT) was 22.17 μg kg^?1, and 526.6 μg kg^?1 for fumonisins B₁ plus B₂, with 85% and 90% of contaminated samples respectively. Up to 69.7 % of the population was estimated to consume a higher aflatoxin dose than that recommended by the JECFA (1 ng kg^?1 of body weight per day); it was found that the recommended dose was exceeded to a greater extent in the male population, due to higher consumption of corn. The risk of fumonisin intake was less than 5 % due to the low presence and levels of these toxins in corn tortillas. The results suggest that corn tortilla consumers are at dietary risk caused by AFT contamination; this information should be considered when taking action to protect public health.     

Household dietary exposure to aflatoxins from maize and maize products in Kenya

Aflatoxicosis has repeatedly affected Kenyans, particularly in the eastern region, due to consumption of contaminated maize. However, save for the cases of acute toxicity, the levels of sub-lethal exposure have not been adequately assessed. It is believed that this type of exposure does exist even during the seasons when acute toxicity does not occur. This study, therefore, was designed to assess the exposure of households to aflatoxins through consumption of maize and maize products. Twenty samples each of maize kernels, muthokoi and maize meal were randomly sampled from households in Kibwezi District of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya and analysed for aflatoxin contamination. The samples were quantitatively analysed for aflatoxin contamination using HPLC. The uncertainty and variability in dietary exposure was quantitatively modelled in Ms Excel using Monte Carlo simulation in @Risk software. Aflatoxins were found in 45% of maize kernels at between 18 and 480 μg kg^–1, 20% of muthokoi at between 12 and 123 μg kg^–1, and 35% of maize meal at between 6 and 30 μg kg^–1. The mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize kernels was 292 ± 1567 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, while the mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize meal and muthokoi were 59 ± 62 and 27 ± 154 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1 respectively. The results showed that the amount and frequency of consumption of the three foods is the more important contributing factor than the mean aflatoxin concentration levels, to the risk of dietary exposure to aflatoxins.     

Determination of aflatoxins in edible oil from markets in Hebei Province of China by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Analysis of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁) and G₂ (AFG₂) in 76 edible oil samples (peanut oil, soybean oil, corn embryo oil and blended oil) was performed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The oils were sampled from three areas (Shijiazhuang, Baoding and Tangshan) of Hebei Province of China. AFB₁ was detected in 22 samples representing 28.9%, followed by AFB₂ (7.89%) and AFG₁ (3.95%), while no AFG₂ contamination was detected in any samples. AFB₁ levels in oil samples ranged 0.14–2.72?µg?kg^?1 and AFB₂ ranged 0.15–0.36?µg?kg^?1, while lower levels of 0.01–0.02?µg?kg^?1 for AFG₁ were recorded. The paper is part of an on-going investigation of aflatoxin contamination in Chinese edible oils.     

Distribution of aflatoxins and fumonisins in dry-milled maize fractions

The aim was to evaluate the distribution of aflatoxins and fumonisins in fractions derived from the dry-milling of contaminated maize. Two maize lots with different contamination levels were processed and sampled: the first (maize 1) had aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) levels of 3.6 and 5379 µg kg^?1, respectively; the second (maize 2) had corresponding levels of 91.1 and 8841 µg kg^?1, respectively. The cleaning step reduced AFB₁ and FB₁ levels by 8 and 11% in maize 1 and by 57 and 34% in maize 2. The subsequent removal of bran and germ led to a further decrease in contamination levels in the products destined for human consumption. In the latter, AFB₁ was uniformly distributed, while FB₁ was concentrated in the finer size fractions. Contamination of raw maize 1 (3.6 µg kg^?1) was below the European Union AFB₁ limit of 5 µg kg^?1 for unprocessed maize, but among the final products only coarse flour (1.7 µg kg^?1) was within the European Union limit of 2 µg kg^?1, while grits and fine flour showed higher levels (2.7 and 2.5 µg kg^?1, respectively). As regards cleaned maize, a different distribution of the two toxins was observed in the kernels: AFB₁ contamination was more superficial and concentrated in germ, while FB₁ contamination affected the inner layers of the kernels.     

Determination of aflatoxins in peanut butter and sesame samples using high-performance liquid chromatography method

In this study, total number of samples analysed were 20 packages of sesame and 20 cans of peanut butter, which were collected from Ankara local markets, Turkey. Extraction and determination of aflatoxins have been made by immunoaffinity column technique and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. Mean levels (±SE) of aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ were found to be 15.756±3.129 ng/g, 1.232±0.244 ng/g and 9.689±1.005 ng/g, respectively in peanut butter samples. Regarding the sesame samples, mean level of aflatoxin G₁ was found to be 0.754±0.213 ng/g. Our data revealed that while aflatoxin levels found in sesame samples were within the Turkish Food Codex (TFC) values, for peanut butter samples, they were higher than the TFC values.     

Inexpensive,rapid screening method for aflatoxins in peanuts and peanut products

Surveys of major Brazilian foodstuffs demonstrated that peanuts and peanut products continue to be very susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. To prevent, or at least minimise, the problem the aflatoxins need to be monitored by a rapid and inexpensive screening method. The AOAC Romer method has been used and found highly reliable. However, the clean-up step utilises anhydrous FeCl₃ and basic CuCO₃ which are expensive and not readily available in Brazil. Thus, the extraction (with a mixture of 270 ml methanol plus 30ml 40 g litre^?1 aqueous KCl) and clean-up (150 ml 100 g litre^?1 aqueous CuSO₄) steps of the method of Soares and Rodriguez-Amaya (1985) were combined with the AOAC minicolumn to provide a rapid, inexpensive screening technique. Fifty-two sample lots of peanuts and peanut products were screened by this and Romer's method, and the results were in complete agreement: 28 samples were negative, four < 20 μg kg^?1, 12 in the range 20–50 μg kg^?1, three in the range 50–100 μg kg^?1 and 5 >100 μg kg^?1. The results also agreed well when the extracts obtained by the two methods were submitted to quantitative TLC.     

Effect of extrusion on nutritional quality of maize and Lima bean flour blends

Maize flour (Zea mays) (M), Lima bean flour (Phaseolus lunatus) (B) and blends of these in proportions of 75M/25B, 50M/50B and 25M/75B (w/w) were extruded and their nutritional quality evaluated. Extrusion was done with a single screw extruder at 160 °C, 100 rpm and 15.5% moisture. In vitro protein digestibility (87%) was higher in the extruded products. Available lysine and resistant starch were highest in 50M/50B raw flour (59.5 g kg⁻¹ protein, 67.9 g kg⁻¹, respectively) but decreased after extrusion (45.5 g kg⁻¹ protein, 16.6 g kg⁻¹, respectively). The same treatment had the lowest available starch (561.6 g kg⁻¹ flour, 507.9 g kg⁻¹ extrudate). Total dietary fiber in the 50M/50B raw flour blend was 144 g kg⁻¹ versus 176 g kg⁻¹ in its extrudate. This was most noticeable for soluble dietary fiber, which increased from 10.6 g kg⁻¹ to 79.4 g kg⁻¹ after processing. Extrusion of blends is feasible up to a 50% bean inclusion level, which improves the nutritional value of the expanded product.Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Distribution of aflatoxins in shelling and milling fractions of naturally contaminated rice

The objective of this study was to determine the distribution of an economically important class of mycotoxins, the aflatoxins, in rice milling fractions. Rice plants grown under field production conditions are frequently infected with types of pathogenic fungi that produce toxic metabolites (mycotoxins). Paddy (seeds) rice from healthy plants in the field was collected and stored on a farm under humid, poorly ventilated conditions. Samples were milled into four fractions (hulls, brown rice, bran and white rice) and analysed for aflatoxins (B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂) using a validated method. Rice fractions from healthy plants, which contained low levels of aflatoxins (less than 1?µg?kg^?1), were used to determine the efficiency of the extraction method. Seeds stored under poor conditions were found to be contaminated with aflatoxins B₁ and B₂ as were the fractions. The sums of AFB₁ and AFB₂ in stored paddy rice, hulls, brown rice, bran and white rice were 141, 39, 158, 367 and 56?µg?kg^?1, respectively. The ratio of aflatoxin B₁ and B₂ was about 10?:?1. AFG₁ and AFG₂ were less than 1?µg?kg^?1. Thus, brown rice contained 92.9% of the aflatoxins in paddy rice, whereas white rice contained only 27.9%.     

Fluorescence and Aflatoxin Content of Individual Almond Kernels Naturally Contaminated with Aflatoxin

An effort was made to relate the aflatoxin content of individual almond kernels to their fluorescent color. The fluorescence of individual blanched almonds and defective almonds, most of which lack an intact pellicle, was described by means of Methuen color charts before each kernel was analyzed for aflatoxin. Almonds that fluoresced violet-purple under long-wave UV light were found to contain high levels of aflatoxins B₁ and B₂ but, with perhaps one exception, no measurable amounts of aflatoxins G₁ and G₂. Some diced almonds with blue fluorescence had all four aflatoxins present but at much lower levels than in the violet-purple kernels. Aflatoxin ranged from 1.0 × 10⁵ to 2.5 × 10⁶ ppb in the violet-purple kernels. These values agree with previous estimates of aflatoxin concentration per contaminated nut. Almond kernels with violet-purple fluorescence should be culled.