A real-time unsupervised background extraction-based target detection method for hyperspectral imagery

Target detection is an important technique in hyperspectral image analysis. The high dimensionality of hyperspectral data provides the possibility of deeply mining the information hiding in spectra, and many targets that cannot be visualized by inspection can be detected. But this also brings some problems such as unknown background interferences at the same time. In this way, extracting and taking advantage of the background information in the region of interest becomes a task of great significance. In this paper, we present an unsupervised background extraction-based target detection method, which is called UBETD for short. The proposed UBETD takes advantage of the method of endmember extraction in hyperspectral unmixing, another important technique that can extract representative material signatures from the images. These endmembers represent most of the image information, so they can be reasonably seen as the combination of targets and background signatures. Since the background information is known, algorithm like target-constrained interference-minimized filter could then be introduced to detect the targets while inhibiting the interferences. To meet the rapidly rising demand of real-time processing capabilities, the proposed algorithm is further simplified in computation and implemented on a FPGA board. Experiments with synthetic and real hyperspectral images have been conducted comparing with constrained energy minimization, adaptive coherence/cosine estimator and adaptive matched filter to evaluate the detection and computational performance of our proposed method. The results indicate that UBETD and its hardware implementation RT-UBETD can achieve better performance and are particularly prominent in inhibiting interferences in the background. On the other hand, the hardware implementation of RT-UBETD can complete the target detection processing in far less time than the data acquisition time of hyperspectral sensor like HyMap, which confirms strict real-time processing capability of the proposed system.     

Incorporating global-local a Priori knowledge into expectation-maximization for SAR image change detection

Speckle is one of the inevitable obstacles related to synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image change detection; it increases the overlap between changed and unchanged pixels in the histogram of a difference image. This makes the selection of a statistic model more difficult for describing opposite classes. To address this issue, this article developed an unsupervised change-detection approach for multitemporal SAR images that specifies a priori knowledge about the spatial characteristics of the classes through Dempster-Shafer evidence theory and embeds it into the Expectation-Maximization (EM) iteration process. It is based on the consideration that each pixel in the difference image is unique due to its neighbourhood, although some of them may have the same pixel value. Thus, under the hypothesis that local and global a priori knowledge are independent sources, a global-local a priori model is developed through Dempster-Shafer evidence theory. The EM algorithm allows one to estimate the statistical parameters of the opposite classes associated with this a priori model. As a consequence, the change-detection result can be obtained within the framework of Bayes. Visual and quantitative results obtained on real multitemporal SAR image data sets confirm the effectiveness of the proposed method compared with state-of-the-art ones for SAR image change detection.     

Speckle filtering in satellite SAR change detection imagery

Repeat-pass Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery is useful for change detection. A disadvantage of SAR is the system-inherent speckle noise. This can be reduced by filtering. Various filter types and methods are described in the literature, but not one fits the speckle noise in change detection imagery. A new method is therefore developed in this paper. The new method is based on filtering the logarithmic-scaled ratio of SAR images. Logarithmic scaling changes the multiplicative speckle noise in the ratio-image into additive noise and alters the distribution, which simplifies and optimizes the subsequent filter process. The filter in the new method consists of an additive LLMMSE filter (Kuan et al. 1985), preceded by a structure detection stage for a better contour preserving performance. Testing the new method on a repeat-pass satellite SAR image-set gave an accurate overview of changes compared to a colour-composite of both images, other optical remote sensing images and maps of the same area.     

Target detection in SAR imagery by genetic programming

The automatic detection of ships in low-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery is investigated in this article. The detector design objectives are to maximise detection accuracy across multiple images, to minimise the computational effort during image processing, and to minimise the effort during the design stage. The results of an extensive numerical study show that a novel approach, using genetic programming (GP), successfully evolves detectors which satisfy the earlier objectives. Each detector represents an algebraic formula and thus the principles of detection can be discovered and reused. This is a major advantage over artificial intelligence techniques which use more complicated representations, e.g. neural networks.     

A toolbox for unsupervised change detection analysis

The analysis of multi-temporal remote-sensing images is one of the main applications in Earth’s observation and monitoring. In this paper, we present a Matlab toolbox for change detection analysis of optical multi-temporal remote-sensing data in which unsupervised approaches, iterative principal component analysis (ITPCA), and iteratively reweighted multivariate alteration detection (IR-MAD) are implemented and optimized. The optimization is represented by the implementation of novel pre- and post-processing strategies that aim to mitigate the side effects introduced by different acquisition conditions affecting change detection analysis. Special modules have been designed in order to decrease the required memory when large data sets are processed.     

Novel class-relativity non-local means with principal component analysis for multitemporal SAR image change detection

One of the main problems for change detection in multitemporal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images is the presence of speckle noise, since it degrades the image quality significantly and may hide important details in the image. In this article, we investigate a novel class-relativity non-local means (CRNLM) algorithm that reduces the effect of speckle noise in the principal component analysis (PCA) feature space for SAR image change detection. Note that the non-local means averaging process is particularly true when the assumed noise model is additive. Thus, we adopt the difference image produced by the ratio image expressed in logarithmic scale and then transform it onto PCA space. This is done so that its signal energy is concentrated, and the noise spreads over the whole PCA space and is additive. A task-dependent CRNLM algorithm is applied to the PCA transformed data set so as to combine local and non-local geometries and capture the robustness to noise. The idea is based on the assumption that non-local similar patches have similar class structures. Visual and quantitative results obtained on real multitemporal SAR image data sets confirm the effectiveness of this method as compared with several state-of-the-art techniques.     

A multiobjective fuzzy clustering method for change detection in SAR images

On account of the presence of speckle noise, the trade-off between removing noise and preserving detail is crucial for the change detection task in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images. In this paper, we put forward a multiobjective fuzzy clustering method for change detection in SAR images. The change detection problem is modeled as a multiobjective optimization problem, and two conflicting objective functions are constructed from the perspective of preserving detail and removing noise, respectively. We optimize the two constructed objective functions simultaneously by using a multiobjective fuzzy clustering method, which updates the membership values according to the weights of the two objectives to find the optimal trade-off. The proposed method obtains a set of solutions with different trade-off relationships between the two objectives, and users can choose one or more appropriate solutions according to requirements for diverse problems. Experiments conducted on real SAR images demonstrate the superiority of the proposed method.     

A minimum-cost thresholding technique for unsupervised change detection

We propose an automatic thresholding technique for difference images in unsupervised change detection. Such a technique takes into account the different costs that may be associated with commission and omission errors in the selection of the decision threshold. This allows the generation of maps in which the overall change-detection cost is minimized, i.e. the more critical kind of error is reduced according to end-user requirements.     

Fraction images in multitemporal change detection

The concept of mixed pixels allows the interpretation of remote sensing digital image data at sub-pixel level. Fraction-image data, obtained using the notion of mixed pixels, offer a potentially powerful method to detect changes in land-cover over a given period of time. This study proposes a new approach to detect land-cover changes, using two sets of fraction-image data obtained from sets of multispectral image data acquired at two different dates, over the same area. Changes based on the selected pixel components are then used to generate the fraction-change image data, including both positive (increase) and negative (decrease) changes in each component. The proposed analysis is then performed in the fraction-change space in two different ways: (1) by implementing unsupervised classification methods and (2) by comparing the fraction-change images among themselves. The proposed methodology is tested on two sets of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) multispectral image data obtained at two different dates and covering a test area mapped in previous works. Results obtained by the proposed methodology are presented and discussed.     

基于多智能体遗传的SAR图像变化检测

针对传统进化算法在SAR图像变化检测时,容易陷入局部最优,收敛速度慢,耗时过长,为了解决这些问题,提出了一种无监督的多智能体遗传SAR图像变化检测方法。利用对数比值法对预处理后的图像构造差异影像,并对差异影像进行中值滤波处理,把它的灰度值作为输入信息,通过多智能体遗传算法搜索全局阈值,根据全局阈值得到变化检测结果。仿真结果表明,该算法与GA、ICSA相比,分类准确,收敛快速,效率更高。     

基于聚类的SAR图像快速目标检测

针对SAR图像目标检测效率低、虚警概率高及SAR图像的特点,改进了Mean Shift聚类算法,并与双参数CFAR检测技术相结合,提出了一种能够快速而准确的SAR图像目标检测算法。通过聚类预处理SAR图像,降低了背景杂波对目标检测的影响及检测的虚警率,并且聚类后的SAR图像具有一定的结构,将图像结构的概念引入到目标检测中,避免了对图像逐点检测,大大提高了检测速度。实验结果表明,该方法具有检测速度快、虚警概率低的特点。     

Early fire detection using non-linear multitemporal prediction of thermal imagery

This paper presents a sub-pixel thermal anomaly detection method based on predicting background pixel intensities using a non-linear function of a plurality of past images of the inspected scene. At present, the multitemporal approach to thermal anomaly detection is in its early development stage. In case of space-borne surveillance the multitemporal detection is complicated by both spatial and temporal variability of background surface properties, weather influences, viewing geometries, sensor noise, residual misregistration, and other factors. We use the problem of fire detection and the MODIS data to demonstrate that advanced multitemporal detection methods can potentially outperform the operationally used optimized contextual algorithms both under morning and evening conditions.     

An adaptive parcel-based technique for unsupervised change detection

A novel unsupervised technique for the detection of changes in multi-temporal remote sensing images is presented. It adaptively exploits the spatial-contextual information contained in the neighbourhood of each pixel to reduce the effects of noise and hence to increase change-detection accuracy. In addition, the proposed definition of an adaptive pixel neighbourhood allows a precise location of the borders of changed areas.     

An unsupervised change detection and recognition system for forestry

This article presents a new unsupervised method (AutoChange) for change detection and identification. It uses, as an input, two images, acquired on different dates, and a parameter list given by the user. Change detection and identification are performed in separate procedures, and the output is a five channel image estimating the change magnitude and characterizing the changed and unchanged areas. The method carries out the change analysis using homogeneous units selected from the images and only in the ultimate phase the whole image is classified. Changes are detected and identified using clustering in two phases. First, clustering is performed on the earlier and later images to form the so called 'primary clusters'. Second, clustering is performed within the primary clusters of the later image to produce the 'secondary clusters'. Then the change magnitude and change type are obtained by comparing the primary clusters in the earlier image to the secondary clusters in the later image. The method, which was tested in southern Finnish Boreal forest using Landsat Thematic Mapper data, could reliably detect and identify clearcuts. In addition, the method provided information on forest damage since the type of the spectral change was consistent on damaged areas despite a minor magnitude of the change.     

一种基于聚类的无监督异常检测方法

为了解决无监督异常检测方法无法检测突发性的大规模攻击的问题,提出了一种基于聚类的无监督异常检测模型,该模型从多个聚类器中选取DB指数最小的分簇结果,并利用最小簇内距离、最大簇内距离对每个簇进行分类,从而识别出攻击。实验表明该模型明显提高了检测率、降低了误报率。     

A new method for extracting ship motion parameters in Radarsat-2 SAR imagery

Traditionally, moving ship detection by Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image is primarily based on the ship wake feature. However, many ship wakes cannot be imaged by SAR owing to changes in imaging conditions, such as the SAR band, polarisation, incident angle, and sea state. In this study, we discovered a unique phenomenon called ‘azimuth tail’ from Radarsat-2 SAR images. Following research and analysis, we determined that the azimuth tail is not manifested as a visible disturbance on sea surface waves. Instead, it is an observation enabled by certain SAR imaging principles. Consequently, we propose a new method for extracting information on moving vessels after a preliminary analysis of the principle of the azimuth tail. The results of experimental analysis of the correctness of the method indicate that the error of the vessel’s velocity from its azimuth tail is less than 20%, and the azimuth tail can be applied to the detection of moving vessels in oceans using Radarsat-2 SAR imagery.     

Fuzzy clustering algorithms for unsupervised change detection in remote sensing images

In this paper, we propose a context-sensitive technique for unsupervised change detection in multitemporal remote sensing images. The technique is based on fuzzy clustering approach and takes care of spatial correlation between neighboring pixels of the difference image produced by comparing two images acquired on the same geographical area at different times. Since the ranges of pixel values of the difference image belonging to the two clusters (changed and unchanged) generally have overlap, fuzzy clustering techniques seem to be an appropriate and realistic choice to identify them (as we already know from pattern recognition literatures that fuzzy set can handle this type of situation very well). Two fuzzy clustering algorithms, namely fuzzy c-means (FCM) and Gustafson-Kessel clustering (GKC) algorithms have been used for this task in the proposed work. For clustering purpose various image features are extracted using the neighborhood information of pixels. Hybridization of FCM and GKC with two other optimization techniques, genetic algorithm (GA) and simulated annealing (SA), is made to further enhance the performance. To show the effectiveness of the proposed technique, experiments are conducted on two multispectral and multitemporal remote sensing images. A fuzzy cluster validity index (Xie-Beni) is used to quantitatively evaluate the performance. Results are compared with those of existing Markov random field (MRF) and neural network based algorithms and found to be superior. The proposed technique is less time consuming and unlike MRF does not require any a priori knowledge of distributions of changed and unchanged pixels.     

Histogram thresholding for unsupervised change detection of remote sensing images

The change-detection problem can be viewed as an unsupervised classification problem with two classes corresponding to changed and unchanged areas. Image differencing is a widely used approach to change detection. It is based on the idea of generating a difference image that represents the modulus of the spectral change vectors associated with each pixel in the study area. To separate out the changed and unchanged classes in the difference image automatically, any unsupervised technique can be used. Thresholding is one of the cheapest techniques among them. However, in thresholding approaches, selection of the best threshold value is not a trivial task. In this work, several non-fuzzy and fuzzy histogram thresholding techniques are investigated and compared for the change-detection problem. Experimental results, carried out on different multitemporal remote sensing images (acquired before and after an event), are used to assess the effectiveness of each of the thresholding techniques. Among all the thresholding techniques investigated here, Liu's fuzzy entropy followed by Kapur's entropy are found to be the most robust techniques.     

Gradual land cover change detection based on multitemporal fraction images

This study proposes a new approach to change detection in remote sensing multi-temporal image data. Rather than allocating pixels to one of two disjoint classes (change, no-change) which is the approach most commonly found in the literature, we propose in this study to define change in terms of degrees of membership to the class change. The methodology aims to model images depicting the natural environment more realistically, taking into account that changes tend to occur in a continuum rather than being sharply distinguished. To this end, a sub-pixel approach is implemented to help detect degrees of change in every pixel. Three experiments employing the proposed approach using synthetic and real image data are reported and their results discussed.     

极化SAR影像边缘检测综述

极化合成孔径雷达（SAR）图像包含目标丰富的散射信息,在边缘检测中具有重大的潜力。对极化SAR影像边缘检测问题进行了系统的研究,从单极化SAR出发,分析了极化SAR边缘检测问题,对已有的方法进行了分类总结,重点介绍了极化SAR边缘检测的最新进展,指出了当前存在的问题,对极化SAR边缘检测的发展趋势进行了展望。