Prediction of species specific forest inventory attributes using a nonparametric semi-individual tree crown approach based on fused airborne laser scanning and multispectral data

While forest inventories based on airborne laser scanning data (ALS) using the area based approach (ABA) have reached operational status, methods using the individual tree crown approach (ITC) have basically remained a research issue. One of the main obstacles for operational applications of ITC is biased results often experienced due to segmentation errors. In this article, we propose a new method, called “semi-ITC” that overcomes the main problems related to ITC by imputing ground truth data within crown segments from the nearest neighboring segment. This may be none, one, or several trees. The distances between segments were derived based on a set of explanatory variables using two nonparametric methods, i.e., most similar neighbor inference (MSN) and random forest (RF). RF favored the imputation of common observations in the data set which resulted in significant biases. Main conclusions are therefore based on MSN. The explanatory variables were calculated by means of small footprint ALS and multispectral data. When testing with empirical data the new method compared favorably to the well-known ABA. Another advantage of the new method over the ABA is that it allowed for the modeling of rare tree species. The results of predicting timber volume with the semi-ITC method were unbiased and the root mean squared error (RMSE) on plot level was smaller than the standard deviation of the observed response variables. The relative RMSEs after cross validation using semi-ITC for total volume and volume of the individual species pine, spruce, birch, and aspen on plot level were 17, 38, 40, 101, and 222%, respectively. Due to the unbiasedness of the estimation, this study is a showcase for how to use crown segments resulting from ITC algorithms in a forest inventory context.     

Forest attribute imputation using machine-learning methods and ASTER data: comparison of k-NN,SVR and random forest regression algorithms

In a small case study of mixed hardwood Hyrcanian forests of Iran, three non-parametric methods, namely k-nearest neighbour (k-NN), support vector machine regression (SVR) and tree regression based on random forest (RF), were used in plot-level estimation of volume/ha, basal area/ha and stems/ha using field inventory and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data. Relevant pre-processing and processing steps were applied to the ASTER data for geometric and atmospheric correction and for enhancing quantitative forest parameters. After collecting terrestrial information on trees in the 101 samples, the volume, basal area and tree number per hectare were calculated in each plot. In the k-NN implementation using different distance measures and k, the cross-validation method was used to find the best distance measure and optimal k. In SVR, the best regularized parameters of four kernel types were obtained using leave-one-out cross-validation. RF was implemented using a bootstrap learning method with regularized parameters for decision tree model and stopping. The validity of performances was examined using unused test samples by absolute and relative root mean square error (RMSE) and bias metrics. In volume/ha estimation, the results showed that all the three algorithms had similar performances. However, SVR and RF produced better results than k-NN with relative RMSE values of 28.54, 25.86 and 26.86 (m³ ha^–1), respectively, using k-NN, SVR and RF algorithms, but RF could generate unbiased estimation. In basal area/ha and stems/ha estimation, the implementation results of RF showed that RF was slightly superior in relative RMSE (18.39, 20.64) to SVR (19.35, 22.09) and k-NN (20.20, 21.53), but k-NN could generate unbiased estimation compared with the other two algorithms used.     

Comparison of spatial sampling strategies for ground sampling and validation of MODIS LAI products

The development of an efficient ground sampling strategy is critical to assess uncertainties associated with moderate- or coarse-resolution remote-sensing products. This work presents a comparison of estimating spatial means from fine spatial resolution images using spatial random sampling (SRS), Block Kriging (BK), and Means of Surface with Nonhomogeneity (MSN) at 1 km² spatial scale. Towards this goal, we focus on the sampling strategies for ground data measurements and provide an assessment of the MODIS LAI product validated by the spatial means estimated by the above-mentioned three methods. The results of this study indicate that: (1) for its effective stratification strategies and its criteria of minimum mean square estimation error, MSN demonstrates the lowest mean squared estimation error for estimating the means of stratified nonhomogeneous surface; (2) BK is efficient in estimating the means of homogeneous surfaces without bias and with minimum mean squared estimation errors. The MODIS LAI product is assessed using the means estimated by SRS, BK, and MSN based on Landsat 8 OLI and SPOT HRV fine-resolution LAI maps. For heterogeneous surfaces, MSN results in low RMSE and high accuracy of MODIS LAI product compared with BK and SRS, whereas for homogeneous surfaces, the statistical parameters outputted by these three methods are similar. These results reveal that MSN is an effective method for estimating the spatial means for heterogeneous surfaces. There are differences in the accuracies of MODIS LAI product assessed by these three methods.     

Nearest neighbor imputation of species-level, plot-scale forest structure attributes from LiDAR data

Meaningful relationships between forest structure attributes measured in representative field plots on the ground and remotely sensed data measured comprehensively across the same forested landscape facilitate the production of maps of forest attributes such as basal area (BA) and tree density (TD). Because imputation methods can efficiently predict multiple response variables simultaneously, they may be usefully applied to map several structural attributes at the species-level. We compared several approaches for imputing the response variables BA and TD, aggregated at the plot-scale and species-level, from topographic and canopy structure predictor variables derived from discrete-return airborne LiDAR data. The predictor and response variables were associated using imputation techniques based on normalized and unnormalized Euclidean distance, Mahalanobis distance, Independent Component Analysis (ICA), Canonical Correlation Analysis (aka Most Similar Neighbor, or MSN), Canonical Correspondence Analysis (aka Gradient Nearest Neighbor, or GNN), and Random Forest (RF). To compare and evaluate these approaches, we computed a scaled Root Mean Square Distance (RMSD) between observed and imputed plot-level BA and TD for 11 conifer species sampled in north-central Idaho. We found that RF produced the best results overall, especially after reducing the number of response variables to the most important species in each plot with regard to BA and TD. We concluded that RF was the most robust and flexible among the imputation methods we tested. We also concluded that canopy structure and topographic metrics derived from LiDAR surveys can be very useful for species-level imputation.     

Estimation of above-ground forest biomass using metrics based on Gaussian decomposition of waveform lidar data

Large-footprint waveform light detection and ranging (lidar) data have been widely used in above-ground forest biomass estimation. Waveform metrics derived from basic statistics (e.g. percentile of energy) of the lidar waveform, such as canopy height and height of median energy, have been applied to biomass estimation in numerous studies. In this study, a set of metrics based on Gaussian decomposition (GD) results were developed and evaluated for forest above-ground biomass estimation using NASA’s laser vegetation imaging sensor (LVIS) data. The GD metrics were designed to explicitly incorporate lidar intensity and vertical structures of canopy layers for biomass estimation. The proposed GD metrics used information related to the above-ground height of each Gaussian centroid and the Gaussian area index (GAI), where GAI is the area covered by a Gaussian function. Two types of novel GD metrics were developed: (1) percentile-height GAI metrics expressing the GAI summation of a subset of Gaussian centroids located within a certain percentile height range; and (2) height-weighted GAI metrics, a summation of GAIs of a waveform weighted by the corresponding heights of their Gaussian centroids. A biomass regression model was built by eight newly developed GD metrics using GAI information and five pre-existing GD-derived metrics that have not previously been used for biomass estimation. The performance of the regression model was then compared to another regression model using 12 previously published metrics (non-GD metrics). The Random Forests (RF) regression algorithm was employed for predicting biomass. The RF out-of-bag results indicated that above-ground biomass estimations using GD metrics achieved significantly better results than those derived from non-GD metrics for deciduous plots (19% lower root mean square error (RMSE), 25% higher coefficient of determination (R²), and marginally better results in coniferous plots (4% lower RSME, 6% higher R²). The combination of GD and non-GD metrics achieved comparable biomass estimation results to the model using exclusively GD metrics. GD metrics also showed strong correlation with forest attributes such as mean diameter at breast height (DBH) and stem density. This study contributes to the usage of GD results for accurate estimation of forest above-ground biomass in large-footprint lidar waveform data in temperate deciduous forests, because temperate deciduous forests have been proved challenging in regard to lidar-derived biomass estimations.     

Estimating field-plot data of forest stands using airborne laser scanning and SPOT HRG data

Airborne laser scanner systems provide detailed forest information that can be used for important improvements in forest management decisions. Planning systems under development use plot-survey data to represent forest stands in large forest holdings which enables new flexible methods to model the forest and optimize selection of silvicultural treatments. In Sweden today, only averages of forest stand variables are used, and the survey methods used do not provide plot-survey data for all stands in large forest holdings. This is a task possibly solved using airborne laser scanner data. Various measures can be derived from laser data, each describing different forest variables, such as tree height distribution, vegetation density and vertical tree crown structure. Here, imputation of field plot (10 m radius) data using measures derived from airborne laser scanner data (TopEye) and optical image data (SPOT 5 HRG satellite sensor) were evaluated as a method to provide data for new long-term management planning systems. In addition to commonly applied measures, the semivariogram of laser measurements was evaluated as a new measure to extract spatial characteristics of the forest. The study used data from 870, 10 m radius field plots (0 to 812 m³ ha^− 1) surveyed for a 1200 ha large forest estate in the south of Sweden. At the best, combining measures derived from laser scanner data and SPOT 5 data, stand mean volume was estimated with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 20% of the sample mean and stem density with 22% RMSE. Bias of stem density estimates was 5%, and stand stem volume 4%. Although these accuracies are sufficient for operational application, estimates of tree species proportions and within-stand variation were clearly not.     

Use of lidar data to simulate forest net primary production

A method has been recently presented to predict the net primary production (NPP) of Mediterranean forests by integrating conventional and remote-sensing data. This method was based on the use of two models, C-Fix and BIOME-BGC, whose outputs are combined with estimates of stem volume and tree age to predict the NPP of the examined ecosystems. This article investigates the possibility of deriving these two forest attributes from airborne high-resolution lidar data. The research was carried out in the San Rossore pine forest, a test site in Central Italy where several investigations have been conducted. First, estimates of stand stem volume and tree age were obtained from lidar data by application of a simplified method based on existing literature and a few ground measurements. The accuracy of these stand attributes was assessed by comparison with the independent ground data derived from a recent forest inventory. Next, the stem volume and tree age estimates were used to drive the NPP modelling strategy, whose outputs were evaluated against the inventory measurements of current annual increment (CAI). The simplified lidar data processing method produces stand stem volume and tree age estimates having moderate accuracy, which are useful to feed the modelling strategy and predict CAI at a stand level. This method's success raises the possibility of integrating ecosystem modelling techniques and lidar data for the simulation of net forest carbon fluxes.     

Multivariate forest structure modelling and mapping using high resolution airborne imagery and topographic information

Remote sensing has been widely used for modelling and mapping individual forest structural attributes, such as LAI and stem density, however the development and evaluation of methods for simultaneously modelling and mapping multivariate aspects of forest structure are comparatively limited. Multivariate representation of forest structure can be used as a means to infer other environmental attributes such as biodiversity and habitat, which have often been shown to be enhanced in more structurally diverse or complex forests. Image-based modelling of multivariate forest structure is useful in developing an understanding of the associations between different aspects of vertical and horizontal structure and image characteristics. Models can also be applied spatially to all image pixels to produce maps of multivariate forest structure as an alternative to sample-based field assessment. This research used high spatial resolution multispectral airborne imagery to provide spectral, spatial, and object-based information in the development of a model of multivariate forest structure as represented by twenty-four field variables measured in plots within a temperate hardwood forest in southern Quebec, Canada. Redundancy Analysis (RDA) was used to develop a model that explained a statistically significant proportion of the variance of these structural attributes. The resulting model included image variables representing mostly within-crown and within-shadow brightness variance (texture) as well as elevation, taken from a DEM of the study area. It was applied spatially across the entire study area to produce a continuous map of predicted multivariate forest structure. Bootstrapping validation of the model provided an RMSE of 19.9%, while independent field validation of mapped areas of complex and simple structure showed accuracies of 89% and 69%, respectively. Multiscale testing using resampled imagery suggested that the methods could possibly be used with current pan-sharpened, or future sub-metre resolution, multispectral satellite imagery, which would provide much greater spatial coverage and reduced image processing compared to airborne imagery.     

基于光学与SAR因子的森林生物量多元回归估算

基于福建省Landsat-8 OLI影像，利用混合像元分解模型从实测样地数据中筛选出“纯净”的植被像元，并将筛选出的样地分为针叶林、阔叶林和混交林3种植被类型，依次提取3种不同植被类型“纯净”植被像元的树高、林龄、坡度属性信息以及对应的光学NDVI、RVI植被因子和合成孔径雷达（SAR）HH、HV极化后向散射因子，分别构成不同植被类型的“含光学特征多元因子”（NDVI、RVI、树高、林龄、坡度）和“含SAR特征多元因子”（HH、HV、树高、林龄、坡度），开展对比研究。采用含光学特征的多元因子回归模型先估测不同植被类型的森林叶生物量，然后根据叶生物量与地上生物量的关系间接估测森林地上生物量。同时，采用含SAR特征的多元因子回归模型直接估测森林的地上生物量。最后，对比分析这两组多元回归模型的估测精度。结果表明：不同植被类型的含光学特征多元回归模型的验证精度（针叶林：R²为0.483，RMSE为29.522 t/hm²；阔叶林：R²为0.470，RMSE为21.632 t/hm²；混交林：R²为0.351，RSME为25.253 t/hm²）比含SAR特征多元回归模型的验证精度（针叶林：R²为0.319，RMSE为28.352 t/hm²；阔叶林：R²为0.353，RMSE为18.991t/hm²；混交林：R²为0.281，RMSE为26.637 t/hm²）略高，说明在福建省森林生物量估算中采用含光学特征的多元回归模型（先估测叶生物量进而间接估测地上生物量）比利用含SAR特征的多元回归模型（直接估测地上生物量）更具优势。     

基于光学与SAR因子的森林生物量多元回归估算

基于福建省Landsat-8 OLI影像,利用混合像元分解模型从实测样地数据中筛选出“纯净”的植被像元,并将筛选出的样地分为针叶林、阔叶林和混交林3种植被类型,依次提取3种不同植被类型“纯净”植被像元的树高、林龄、坡度属性信息以及对应的光学NDVI、RVI植被因子和合成孔径雷达（SAR）HH、HV极化后向散射因子,分别构成不同植被类型的“含光学特征多元因子”（NDVI、RVI、树高、林龄、坡度）和“含SAR特征多元因子”（HH、HV、树高、林龄、坡度）,开展对比研究。采用含光学特征的多元因子回归模型先估测不同植被类型的森林叶生物量,然后根据叶生物量与地上生物量的关系间接估测森林地上生物量。同时,采用含SAR特征的多元因子回归模型直接估测森林的地上生物量。最后,对比分析这两组多元回归模型的估测精度。结果表明：不同植被类型的含光学特征多元回归模型的验证精度（针叶林：R²为0.483,RMSE为29.522 t/hm²;阔叶林：R²为0.470,RMSE为21.632 t/hm²;混交林：R²为0.351,RSME为25.253 t/hm²）比含SAR特征多元回归模型的验证精度（针叶林：R²为0.319,RMSE为28.352 t/hm²;阔叶林：R²为0.353,RMSE为18.991t/hm²;混交林：R²为0.281,RMSE为26.637 t/hm²）略高,说明在福建省森林生物量估算中采用含光学特征的多元回归模型（先估测叶生物量进而间接估测地上生物量）比利用含SAR特征的多元回归模型（直接估测地上生物量）更具优势。     

Aboveground forest biomass derived using multiple dates of WorldView-2 stereo-imagery: quantifying the improvement in estimation accuracy

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to investigate the capabilities of two date satellite-derived image-based point clouds (IPCs) to estimate forest aboveground biomass (AGB). The data sets used include panchromatic WorldView-2 stereo-imagery with 0.46 m spatial resolution representing 2014 and 2016 and a detailed digital elevation model derived from airborne laser scanning data. Altogether, 332 field sample plots with an area of 256 m² were used for model development and validation. Predictors describing forest height, density, and variation in height were extracted from the IPC 2014 and 2016 and used in k-nearest neighbour imputation models developed with sample plot data for predicting AGB. AGB predictions for 2014 (AGB₂₀₁₄) were projected to 2016 using growth models (AGB_{Projected_2016}) and combined with the AGB estimates derived from the 2016 data (AGB₂₀₁₆). AGB prediction model developed with 2014 data was also applied to 2016 data (AGB_{2016_pred2014}). Based on our results, the change in the 90^th percentile of height derived from the WorldView-2 IPC was able to characterize forest height growth between 2014 and 2016 with an average growth of 0.9 m. Features describing canopy cover and variation in height derived from the IPC were not as consistent. The AGB₂₀₁₆ had a bias of ?7.5% (?10.6 Mg ha^?1) and root mean square error (RMSE) of 26.0% (36.7 Mg ha^?1) as the respective values for AGB_{Projected_2016} were 7.0% (9.9 Mg ha^?1) and 21.5% (30.8 Mg ha^?1). AGB_{2016_pred2014} had a bias of ?19.6% (?27.7 Mg ha^?1) and RMSE of 33.2% (46.9 Mg ha^?1). By combining predictions of AGB₂₀₁₆ and AGB_{Projected_2016} at sample plot level as a weighted average, we were able to decrease the bias notably compared to estimates made on any single date. The lowest bias of ?0.25% (?0.4 Mg ha^?1) was obtained when equal weights of 0.5 were given to the AGB_{Projected_2016} and AGB₂₀₁₆ estimates. Respectively, RMSE of 20.9% (29.5 Mg ha^?1) was obtained using equal weights. Thus, we conclude that combination of two date WorldView-2 stereo-imagery improved the reliability of AGB estimates on sample plots where forest growth was the only change between the two dates.     

Application of random forest,generalised linear model and their hybrid methods with geostatistical techniques to count data: Predicting sponge species richness

Spatial distribution of sponge species richness (SSR) and its relationship with environment are important for marine ecosystem management, but they are either unavailable or unknown. Hence we applied random forest (RF), generalised linear model (GLM) and their hybrid methods with geostatistical techniques to SSR data by addressing relevant issues with variable selection and model selection. It was found that: 1) of five variable selection methods, one is suitable for selecting optimal RF predictive models; 2) traditional model selection methods are unsuitable for identifying GLM predictive models and joint application of RF and AIC can select accuracy-improved models; 3) highly correlated predictors may improve RF predictive accuracy; 4) hybrid methods for RF can accurately predict count data; and 5) effects of model averaging are method-dependent. This study depicted the non-linear relationships of SSR and predictors, generated spatial distribution of SSR with high accuracy and revealed the association of high SSR with hard seabed features.     

A proposed extension to the soil moisture and ocean salinity level 2 algorithm for mixed forest and moderate vegetation pixels

The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, launched in November 2009, provides global maps of soil moisture and ocean salinity by measuring the L-band (1.4 GHz) emission of the Earth's surface with a spatial resolution of 40-50 km. Uncertainty in the retrieval of soil moisture over large heterogeneous areas such as SMOS pixels is expected, due to the non-linearity of the relationship between soil moisture and the microwave emission. The current baseline soil moisture retrieval algorithm adopted by SMOS and implemented in the SMOS Level 2 (SMOS L2) processor partially accounts for the sub-pixel heterogeneity of the land surface, by modelling the individual contributions of different pixel fractions to the overall pixel emission. This retrieval approach is tested in this study using airborne L-band data over an area the size of a SMOS pixel characterised by a mix Eucalypt forest and moderate vegetation types (grassland and crops), with the objective of assessing its ability to correct for the soil moisture retrieval error induced by the land surface heterogeneity. A preliminary analysis using a traditional uniform pixel retrieval approach shows that the sub-pixel heterogeneity of land cover type causes significant errors in soil moisture retrieval (7.7%v/v RMSE, 2%v/v bias) in pixels characterised by a significant amount of forest (40-60%). Although the retrieval approach adopted by SMOS partially reduces this error, it is affected by errors beyond the SMOS target accuracy, presenting in particular a strong dry bias when a fraction of the pixel is occupied by forest (4.1%v/v RMSE, −3.1%v/v bias). An extension to the SMOS approach is proposed that accounts for the heterogeneity of vegetation optical depth within the SMOS pixel. The proposed approach is shown to significantly reduce the error in retrieved soil moisture (2.8%v/v RMSE, −0.3%v/v bias) in pixels characterised by a critical amount of forest (40-60%), at the limited cost of only a crude estimate of the optical depth of the forested area (better than 35% uncertainty). This study makes use of an unprecedented data set of airborne L-band observations and ground supporting data from the National Airborne Field Experiment 2005 (NAFE'05), which allowed accurate characterisation of the land surface heterogeneity over an area equivalent in size to a SMOS pixel.     

Estimating montane forest above-ground biomass in the upper reaches of the Heihe River Basin using Landsat-TM data

In this work, the results of above-ground biomass (AGB) estimates from Landsat Thematic Mapper 5 (TM) images and field data from the fragmented landscape of the upper reaches of the Heihe River Basin (HRB), located in the Qilian Mountains of Gansu province in northwest China, are presented. Estimates of AGB are relevant for sustainable forest management, monitoring global change, and carbon accounting. This is particularly true for the Qilian Mountains, which are a water resource protection zone. We combined forest inventory data from 133 plots with TM images and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) global digital elevation model (GDEM) V2 products (GDEM) in order to analyse the influence of the sun-canopy-sensor plus C (SCS+C) topographic correction on estimations of forest AGB using the stepwise multiple linear regression (SMLR) and k-nearest neighbour (k-NN) methods. For both methods, our results indicated that the SCS+C correction was necessary for getting more reliable forest AGB estimates within this complex terrain. Remotely sensed AGB estimates were validated against forest inventory data using the leave-one-out (LOO) method. An optimized k-NN method was designed by varying both mathematical formulation of the algorithm and remote-sensing data input, which resulted in 3000 different model configurations. Following topographic correction, performance of the optimized k-NN method was compared to that of the regression method. The optimized k-NN method (R² = 0.59, root mean square error (RMSE) = 24.92 tonnes ha^–1) was found to perform much better than the regression method (R² = 0.42, RMSE = 29.74 tonnes ha^–1) for forest AGB retrieval over this montane area. Our results indicated that the optimized k-NN method is capable of operational application to forest AGB estimates in regions where few inventory data are available.     

随机森林中树的数量

随机森林是一种集成分类器,对影响随机森林性能的参数进行了分析,结果表明随机森林中树的数量对随机森林的性能影响至关重要。对树的数量的确定方法以及随机森林性能指标的评价方法进行了研究与总结。以分类精度为评价方法,利用UCI数据集对随机森林中决策树的数量与数据集的关系进行了实验分析,实验结果表明对于多数数据集,当树的数量为100时,就可以使分类精度达到要求。将随机森林和分类性能优越的支持向量机在精度方面进行了对比,实验结果表明随机森林的分类性能可以与支持向量机相媲美。     

A novel change detection approach based on visual saliency and random forest from multi-temporal high-resolution remote-sensing images

ABSTRACT

This article presents a novel change detection (CD) approach for high-resolution remote-sensing images, which incorporates visual saliency and random forest (RF). First, highly homogeneous and compact image super-pixels are generated using super-pixel segmentation, and the optimal segmentation result is obtained through image superimposition and principal component analysis. Second, saliency detection is used to guide the search of interest regions in the initial difference image obtained via the improved robust change vector analysis algorithm. The salient regions within the difference image that correspond to the binarized saliency map are extracted, and the regions are subject to the fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering to obtain the pixel-level pre-classification result, which can be used as a prerequisite for super-pixel-based analysis. Third, on the basis of the optimal segmentation and pixel-level pre-classification results, different super-pixel change possibilities are calculated. Furthermore, the changed and unchanged super-pixels that serve as the training samples are automatically selected. The spectral features and Gabor features of each super-pixel are extracted. Finally, super-pixel-based CD is implemented by applying RF based on these samples. Experimental results on Quickbird, Ziyuan 3 (ZY3), and Gaofen 2 (GF2) multi-spectral images show that the proposed method outperforms the compared methods in the accuracy of CD, and also confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed approach.     

Spatially consistent nearest neighbor imputation of forest stand data

This study suggests a method for improving spatial consistency in the estimation of forest stand data. Traditional nearest neighbor imputation can preserve between-variable consistency within a unit, but not between geographically nearby units. The lack of spatial consistency may cause problems when data are used for purposes of forestry planning or scenario analysis. In spatially consistent nearest neighbor imputation, adjacent units are considered in the estimation. The first step of the method is a k-Nearest Neighbor imputation. Secondly, based on the initial imputation an optimization algorithm, Simulated Annealing, is applied in order to reach certain spatial variation targets. The proposed method was tested in a case study where tree stem volume data were imputed to each unit (pixel) of forest stands, using satellite digital numbers as carrier data. The spatial variation measures used were between-pixel correlation and short-range variance. In addition, accuracy of the estimated stand level mean volume was used as a target in order to avoid drifts in mean volume during the optimization. The method was successful in three out of four stands where it resulted in imputations corresponding exactly to the target spatial variation measures. In the fourth stand it was not possible to find an exact solution. However, in this case the two spatial variation targets were reached whereas the mean stem volume was slightly overestimated (stem volume of 375 m³ ha^− 1 rather than 336 m³ ha^− 1).     

Biomass estimation of mixed forest landscape using a Fourier transform texture-based approach on very-high-resolution optical satellite imagery

Assessment of forest structure parameters via remote-sensing data offers the opportunity to examine stand parameters and to detect degradation and forest dynamics, such as above-ground biomass (AGB), at the landscape scale. While much attention has focused on spectrum-based and radar backscatter approaches for assessing forest biomass, texture-based approaches show strong promise. This work makes use of the novel Fourier transform textural ordination (FOTO) method, which involves the combination of 2D fast Fourier transform (FFT) and ordination through principal component analysis (PCA) for characterizing the structural and textural properties of vegetation. This technique presents the potential of Fourier transform approaches in estimating the different forest types, their stand structure, and biomass dynamics in the context of an oil palm–tropical forest landscape in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. The method was applied to the recordings of very-high-resolution (VHR) Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) imagery of the study area. The technique proved useful in distinguishing between the forest types and developing individual biomass estimate models for various forest types. Results show that the FOTO method is able correctly to resolve high AGB values of various forest types. These findings are in agreement with the results based on ground measurements.     

Modelling lidar-derived boreal forest canopy cover with SPOT 4 HRVIR data

Forest canopy cover (C) is needed in forest area monitoring and for many ecological models. Airborne scanning lidar sensors can produce fairly accurate C estimates even without field training data. However, optical satellite images are more cost-efficient for large area inventories. Our objective was to use airborne lidar data to obtain accurate estimates of C for a set of sample plots in a boreal forest and to generalize C for a large area using a satellite image. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and reduced simple ratio (RSR) were calculated from the satellite image and used as predictors in the regressions. RSR, which combines information from the red, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared bands, provided the best performance in terms of absolute root mean square error (RMSE) (7.3%) in the training data. NDVI produced a markedly larger RMSE (10.0%). However, in an independent validation data set, RMSE increased (13.0–17.1%) because the systematic sample of validation plots contained more variation than the training plots. Our results are better than those reported earlier, which is probably explained by more consistent C estimates derived from the lidar. Our approach provides an efficient method for creating C maps for large areas.