Efficient parallel algorithm for pixel classification in remote sensing imagery

An important approach for image classification is the clustering of pixels in the spectral domain. Fast detection of different land cover regions or clusters of arbitrarily varying shapes and sizes in satellite images presents a challenging task. In this article, an efficient scalable parallel clustering technique of multi-spectral remote sensing imagery using a recently developed point symmetry-based distance norm is proposed. The proposed distributed computing time efficient point symmetry based K-Means technique is able to correctly identify presence of overlapping clusters of any arbitrary shape and size, whether they are intra-symmetrical or inter-symmetrical in nature. A Kd-tree based approximate nearest neighbor searching technique is used as a speedup strategy for computing the point symmetry based distance. Superiority of this new parallel implementation with the novel two-phase speedup strategy over existing parallel K-Means clustering algorithm, is demonstrated both quantitatively and in computing time, on two SPOT and Indian Remote Sensing satellite images, as even K-Means algorithm fails to detect the symmetry in clusters. Different land cover regions, classified by the algorithms for both images, are also compared with the available ground truth information. The statistical analysis is also performed to establish its significance to classify both satellite images and numeric remote sensing data sets, described in terms of feature vectors.     

基于改进遗传算法遥感图像非监督分类研究

传统的非监督分类方法通过人为预先设定的类别数把像素划分到相应的类别中,但类别数事先不能精确得到,因此会增大误分率,降低分类精度。提出一种新的可变聚类数目的染色体、采用Davies-Bouldin系数作为适应度,通过对传统遗传算法的一系列改进自动进化出高分辨率遥感图像的类别数和聚类中心。同时,采用整型数据来进行染色体编码,不仅降低了计算复杂度,同时也节省了存储空间。算法已用VC实现程序设计,程序结果证明该改进算法的正确性并获得令人满意的实验结果。     

A segmentation approach to classification of remote sensing imagery

In this paper we propose a new approach for land cover classification of remote sensing imagery. It is a two-stage technique, where in the first stage the global feature-based technique of histogram thresholding generalized to multidimensional cases developed by Khotanzad and Bouarfa (1990) is used, and in the second stage a local feature-based region growing technique is generalized to grow multiple non-contiguous regions in parallel. The Khotanzad and Bouarfa technique has the advantage of being a non-iterative unsupervised classification technique, but suffers from a failure to detect regions of small spatial extent which may have high local contrast but low weightage in the global feature space. Our proposed technique divides the image into blocks of suitable size so that regions of small spatial extent are detected in the block's histogram, and they are grown across neighboring blocks. The proposed technique is illustrated with actual remote sensing imagery. A number of choices of feature space for the first stage, and different measures of similarity for the second stage were investigated on remote sensing data, both visually as well as quantitatively in terms of classification accuracy. It was found that the xyz colour space (Ohta et al. 1980) for the first stage, and the J-M distance for the second stage similarity measure, gave the best results in terms of classification accuracy. Though the approach is unsupervised and non-iterative in nature, it has given a classification accuracy of better than 91 per cent for a five-class landcover classification.     

Multi-objective semi-supervised clustering for automatic pixel classification from remote sensing imagery

Classifying the pixels of satellite images into homogeneous regions is a very challenging task as different regions have different types of land covers. Some land covers contain more regions, while some contain relatively smaller regions (e.g., bridges, roads). In satellite image segmentation, no prior information is available about the number of clusters. Here, in this paper, we have solved this problem using the concepts of semi-supervised clustering which utilizes the property of unsupervised and supervised classification. Three cluster validity indices are utilized, which are simultaneously optimized using AMOSA, a modern multiobjective optimization technique based on the concepts of simulated annealing. The first two cluster validity indices, symmetry distance based Sym-index, and Euclidean distance based I-index, are based on unsupervised properties. The last one is a supervised information based cluster validity index, Minkowski index. For supervised information, initially fuzzy C-mean clustering technique is used. Thereafter, based on the highest membership values of the data points to their respective clusters, randomly 10 % data points with their class labels are chosen. The effectiveness of this proposed semi-supervised clustering technique is demonstrated on three satellite image data sets of different cities of India. Results are also compared with existing clustering techniques.     

A study of a Gaussian mixture model for urban land-cover mapping based on VHR remote sensing imagery

This article proposes a Gaussian-mixture-model (GMM)-based method with optimal Gaussian components to address the high intra-class spectral variability in urban land-cover mapping using remote sensing images with very high resolution (VHR). GMMs can simulate and approximate any data distribution provided the optimal Gaussian components can be found. Through improving the model parameters in view of the characteristic of VHR remote sensing images, the parameter space of GMM is optimized significantly, and the model can find the optimal Gaussian components that are suitable for remote sensing images with different resolutions. Experimental results of Wuhan urban area using two images with different resolutions have demonstrated the efficiency and effectiveness of the model. The optimized GMM-based method performs at least comparably or superior to the state-of-the-art classifiers such as support vector machines (SVMs), characterizes man-made land-cover types better than conventional methods, fuses spectral and textural features of VHR image properly, and meanwhile has lower computational complexity.     

直推式遥感图像场景零样本分类算法

针对遥感图像场景零样本分类算法中的空间类结构不一致以及域偏移问题,提出基于Sammon嵌入和谱聚类方法结合的直推式遥感图像场景零样本分类算法。首先,基于Sammon嵌入算法修正语义特征空间类原型表示,使其与视觉特征空间类原型结构对齐;其次,借助结构迁移方法得到视觉特征空间测试类原型表示;最后,针对域偏移问题,采用谱聚类方法修正视觉特征空间测试类原型,以适应测试类样本分布特点,提高场景零样本分类准确度。在两个遥感场景集（UCM和AID）上分别获得52.89%和55.93%的最高总体分类准确度,均显著优于对比方法。实验结果表明,通过显著降低视觉特征空间和语义特征空间的场景类别结构不一致性,同时减轻了域偏移问题,可实现语义特征空间类结构知识到视觉特征空间的有效迁移,大幅提升遥感场景零样本分类的准确度。     

ICA mixture models for unsupervised classification of non-Gaussian classes and automatic context switching in blind signal separation

An unsupervised classification algorithm is derived by modeling observed data as a mixture of several mutually exclusive classes that are each described by linear combinations of independent, non-Gaussian densities. The algorithm estimates the density of each class and is able to model class distributions with non-Gaussian structure. The new algorithm can improve classification accuracy compared with standard Gaussian mixture models. When applied to blind source separation in nonstationary environments, the method can switch automatically between classes, which correspond to contexts with different mixing properties. The algorithm can learn efficient codes for images containing both natural scenes and text. This method shows promise for modeling non-Gaussian structure in high-dimensional data and has many potential applications.     

应用于地物识别的改进轮转森林算法

针对数量激增、数据类型复杂的遥感影像,准确和具有普适性的分类是亟待解决的问题。提出一种轮转径向基函数神经网络模型应用于遥感影像的处理方法。通过对输入数据的特征变换,使特征总集变为多个子特征集,依据PCA(主成分分析)变换处理这些新的子特征集,将得到的系数用于改变训练样本,增加基分类器之间的差异度,提高分类精度。以扎龙湿地为研究对象将该算法与其他方法比较,结果显示本文方法能得到更准确的分类结果,而且具有较高的泛化精度以及较小的过学习现象。     

Modified differential evolution based fuzzy clustering for pixel classification in remote sensing imagery

The problem of classifying an image into different homogeneous regions is viewed as the task of clustering the pixels in the intensity space. In particular, satellite images contain landcover types some of which cover significantly large areas, while some (e.g., bridges and roads) occupy relatively much smaller regions. Detecting regions or clusters of such widely varying sizes presents a challenging task. A modified differential evolution based fuzzy clustering technique, is proposed in this article. Real-coded encoding of the cluster centres is used for this purpose. Results demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed technique are provided for several synthetic and real life data sets as well as for some benchmark functions. Different landcover regions in remote sensing imagery have also been classified using the proposed technique to establish its efficiency. Statistical significance tests have been performed to establish the superiority of the proposed algorithm.     

层次混合模型快速遥感影像分割算法

针对高分辨率遥感影像中同物异谱和同谱异物导致的分割困难问题,提出一种层次高斯混合模型(HGMM)快速遥感影像分割算法.首先采用HGMM构建影像的统计模型,其具有准确建模像素强度统计分布呈现的非对称、重尾和多峰等复杂特性的能力;然后根据贝叶斯理论构建基于HGMM的分割模型,为了简化参数求解并提高算法效率,定义均值和方差为关于权重的函数;最后采用共轭梯度(CGM)求解模型参数.实验中采用所提出算法和传统统计模型分割算法分别对合成、全色和彩色高分辨率遥感影像进行分割实验.实验结果表明,所提出的HGMM具有准确建模复杂统计分布的能力,且能够准确和有效地分割全色和彩色遥感影像.     

结合非监督分类和几何—纹理—光谱特征的高分影像道路提取

目的 目前针对复杂场景高分辨率遥感影像道路提取多采用监督分类方法,但需要人工选择样本,自动化程度低且具有不稳定性。基于像元级的方法,提取完整度低且易产生椒盐噪声;面向对象的方法易产生粘连问题。为了提高道路提取的完整度、准确度和自动化程度,提出一种基于非监督分类和几何—纹理—光谱特征的道路提取方法。方法 首先考虑光谱特征利用非监督分类进行初步分割,结合基于纹理特征分类的结果得到初始道路区域。然后根据道路特征建立一套完整的非道路区域滤除体系：边缘滤波断开道路和非道路的连接、纹理滤波滤除大面积非道路区域、形状滤波去除剩余小面积非道路区域。最后利用张量投票算法得到连贯、平滑的道路中心线。结果 选择复杂场景下的高分辨率IKONOS影像和QuickBird影像进行实验,与国内外基于像素和面向对象的两种有代表性的道路提取方法进行对比,采用完整率、正确率、检测质量3个评价指标进行定量评价。实验结果表明该方法相比于其他算法在完整率、正确率和检测质量上平均提高26.61%、5.57%和26.77%。定性分析结果表明,本文方法可以有效改善椒盐噪声和粘连现象。此外本文方法的自动化程度更高。结论 提出了一种基于非监督分类和几何—纹理—光谱特征的高分辨遥感影像道路提取方法,非监督相对于监督分类的方法有更高的自动化程度,复杂场景下的道路提取融合几何—纹理—光谱特征有效避免了基于像元级道路提取易产生的椒盐噪声现象和面向对象道路提取易产生的粘连现象。该方法适用于高分辨率遥感影像城市道路提取,能够得到较高的完整度、准确度以及自动化程度。非监督分类和多特征结合的道路提取方法有广阔的应用前景。     

On combining multiscale deep learning features for the classification of hyperspectral remote sensing imagery

In recent years, satellite imagery has greatly improved in both spatial and spectral resolution. One of the major unsolved problems in highly developed remote sensing imagery is the manual selection and combination of appropriate features according to spectral and spatial properties. Deep learning framework can learn global and robust features from the training data set automatically, and it has achieved state-of-the-art classification accuracies over different image classification tasks. In this study, a technique is proposed which attempts to classify hyperspectral imagery by incorporating deep learning features. Firstly, deep learning features are extracted by multiscale convolutional auto-encoder. Then, based on the learned deep learning features, a logistic regression classifier is trained for classification. Finally, parameters of deep learning framework are analysed and the potential development is introduced. Experiments are conducted on the well-known Pavia data set which is acquired by the reflective optics system imaging spectrometer sensor. It is found that the deep learning-based method provides a more accurate classification result than the traditional ones.     

改进的标记分水岭遥感影像分割方法*

在Meyer算法的基础上,提出一种改进的标记分水岭遥感影像分割方法,该方法针对高空间分辨率遥感影像的特点,依据梯度影像的分布特征自动提取合适的标记影像。浸没过程中,非标记像素按照梯度值由小到大进行处理,并使用正反两个队列记录当前处理的像素。实验证明,将该算法用于高分辨率遥感影像分割,不仅获得高质量的分割结果,而且具有极高的运行效率与空间利用效率。     

Equidensitometry and remote sensing imagery

The technique of equidensitometry is described, and an example of its use with a NOAA 2 thermal infrared image to extract density contour lines is given.     

极化SAR图像Pauli-Wishart非监督分类算法

针对全极化SAR影像经典非监督分类方法中H/α初始划分适应性有限及武断僵硬的问题,结合极化总功率提出一种结合Pauli分解与Wishart距离的极化SAR影像非监督分类方法。利用极化总功率Span对数据进行基于散射强度的初始划分;结合初分类结果与Pauli分解得到的HH,HV,VV 3个波段进行迭代分类;基于Wishart距离进行聚类得到分类结果。实验采用NASA-JPL实验室的2组L波段全极化SAR数据验证了基于Pauli基迭代改进分类方法的有效性,分类结果与传统的H/α-Wishart分类方法对比,分类精度和合理性都有提高。     

Unsupervised classification of hyperspectral data: an ICA mixture model based approach

Conventional unsupervised classification algorithms that model the data in each class with a multivariate Gaussian distribution are often inappropriate, as this assumption is frequently not satisfied by the remote sensing data. In this Letter, a new algorithm based on independent component analysis (ICA) is presented. The ICA mixture model (ICAMM) algorithm that models class distributions as non-Gaussian densities has been employed for unsupervised classification of a test image from the AVIRIS sensor. A number of feature-extraction techniques have also been examined that serve as a pre-processing step to reduce the dimensionality of the hyperspectral data. The proposed ICAMM algorithm results in significant increase in the classification accuracy over that obtained from the conventional K-means algorithm for land cover classification.     

基于独立分量分析的高光谱遥感影像决策树分类

为解决高光谱遥感影像波段众多所带来的信息丰富与“维数灾难”间的矛盾并提高分类精度,针对传统特征选择方法信息损失大的缺陷,基于EO-1 Hyperion高光谱遥感影像,采用独立分量分析(ICA)和决策树分类(DTC)方法联合运作流程,开展影像的地物分类实验研究,提出了ICA-DTC模型。首先运用ICA方法对影像进行特征提取,并以所提取的独立分量特征及其他地理辅助要素组成分类指标集;继而选择适当的指标组合和阈值设定判别规则,建立DTC模型进行影像的地物分类;最后将分类结果与传统最大似然分类法进行比对。结果显示：从分类的总体精度看,前者可达89.34%,高出后者18.8%;从单一地物的分类精度看,前者仅水体的精度略低于后者,而其他11种地物的精度都高于后者。理论分析与实验结果均表明,ICA-DTC模型可有效提高复杂地形条件下的地物分类精度。     

Histogram thresholding for unsupervised change detection of remote sensing images

The change-detection problem can be viewed as an unsupervised classification problem with two classes corresponding to changed and unchanged areas. Image differencing is a widely used approach to change detection. It is based on the idea of generating a difference image that represents the modulus of the spectral change vectors associated with each pixel in the study area. To separate out the changed and unchanged classes in the difference image automatically, any unsupervised technique can be used. Thresholding is one of the cheapest techniques among them. However, in thresholding approaches, selection of the best threshold value is not a trivial task. In this work, several non-fuzzy and fuzzy histogram thresholding techniques are investigated and compared for the change-detection problem. Experimental results, carried out on different multitemporal remote sensing images (acquired before and after an event), are used to assess the effectiveness of each of the thresholding techniques. Among all the thresholding techniques investigated here, Liu's fuzzy entropy followed by Kapur's entropy are found to be the most robust techniques.     

Point processes for unsupervised line network extraction in remote sensing

This paper addresses the problem of unsupervised extraction of line networks (for example, road or hydrographic networks) from remotely sensed images. We model the target line network by an object process, where the objects correspond to interacting line segments. The prior model, called "quality candy," is designed to exploit as fully as possible the topological properties of the network under consideration, while the radiometric properties of the network are modeled using a data term based on statistical tests. Two techniques are used to compute this term: one is more accurate, the other more efficient. A calibration technique is used to choose the model parameters. Optimization is done via simulated annealing using a reversible jump Markov chain Monte Carlo (RJMCMC) algorithm. We accelerate convergence of the algorithm by using appropriate proposal kernels. The results obtained on satellite and aerial images are quantitatively evaluated with respect to manual extractions. A comparison with the results obtained using a previous model, called the "candy" model, shows the interest of adding quality coefficients with respect to interactions in the prior density. The relevance of using an offline computation of the data potential is shown, in particular, when a proposal kernel based on this computation is added in the RJMCMC algorithm.     

改进的基于深度学习的遥感图像分类算法

针对传统的基于深度学习的遥感图像分类算法未能有效融合多种深度学习特征，且分类器性能欠佳的问题，提出一种改进的基于深度学习的高分辨率遥感图像分类算法。首先，设计并搭建一个七层卷积神经网络；其次，将高分辨率遥感图像样本输入到该网络中进行网络训练，得到最后两个全连接层输出作为遥感图像两种不同的高层特征；再次，针对该网络第五层池化层输出，采用主成分分析（PCA）进行降维，作为遥感图像的第三种高层特征；然后，将上述三种高层特征通过串联的形式进行融合，得到一种有效的基于深度学习的遥感图像特征；最后，设计了一种基于逻辑回归的遥感图像分类器，可以对遥感图像进行有效分类。与传统基于深度学习的遥感图像分类算法相比，所提算法分类准确率有较高提升。实验结果表明，该算法在分类准确率、误分类率和Kappa系数上表现优异，能实现良好的分类效果。