An overview of wireless structural health monitoring for civil structures

Wireless monitoring has emerged in recent years as a promising technology that could greatly impact the field of structural monitoring and infrastructure asset management. This paper is a summary of research efforts that have resulted in the design of numerous wireless sensing unit prototypes explicitly intended for implementation in civil structures. Wireless sensing units integrate wireless communications and mobile computing with sensors to deliver a relatively inexpensive sensor platform. A key design feature of wireless sensing units is the collocation of computational power and sensors; the tight integration of computing with a wireless sensing unit provides sensors with the opportunity to self-interrogate measurement data. In particular, there is strong interest in using wireless sensing units to build structural health monitoring systems that interrogate structural data for signs of damage. After the hardware and the software designs of wireless sensing units are completed, the Alamosa Canyon Bridge in New Mexico is utilized to validate their accuracy and reliability. To improve the ability of low-cost wireless sensing units to detect the onset of structural damage, the wireless sensing unit paradigm is extended to include the capability to command actuators and active sensors.     

Fracture mechanics in the characterisation of brick masonry structures

The analysis of the mechanical behaviour of masonry structures is based on the assumption that this material does not withstand tension. In this field many researchers are studying how to refine analytical and experimental procedures to obtain a more accurate correspondence between the real behaviour and the simulated one. However, this hypothesis cannot explain the masonry strength with respect to dynamic and seismic load conditions, which cause tensile stresses and dilating strains in masonry structures. The aim of this work is to give a complete set of experimental results in order to determine the mechanical properties of brick masonry. In particular, an extensive experimental programme was carried out to characterise the mechanical and structural behaviour of masonry composite in compression, along both the material directions, and in tension, along the horizontal mortar joint direction. Tensile properties in particular were estimated by means of four-point bending (FPB) tests owing to the lack of a standard tensile test and because bending tests are considered to be reliable indirect tensile ones and easy to carry out. The experimental results obtained using this testing procedure highlighted the behaviour of a bimodular material when subjected to tensile stresses, and these were then analysed by means of fracture mechanics theory to estimate the masonry toughness and stress intensity factor as further material characteristics.     

Research and development of seismic base isolation technique for civil engineering structures

Base isolation is one of the most promising alternatives among the structure control methods. In recent decades, base isolation has been seriously considered for civil structures, such as buildings and bridges, subjected to ground motion. The research achievements and development of seismic base isolation technique for civil structures in Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST) are introduced. The achievements include project applications, experimental research results and theoretical innovation.     

Physical and mechanical characterisation of 3D-printed porous titanium for biomedical applications

The elastic modulus of metallic orthopaedic implants is typically 6–12 times greater than cortical bone, causing stress shielding: over time, bone atrophies through decreased mechanical strain, which can lead to fracture at the implantation site. Introducing pores into an implant will lower the modulus significantly. Three dimensional printing (3DP) is capable of producing parts with dual porosity features: micropores by process (residual pores from binder burnout) and macropores by design via a computer aided design model. Titanium was chosen due to its excellent biocompatibility, superior corrosion resistance, durability, osteointegration capability, relatively low elastic modulus, and high strength to weight ratio. The mechanical and physical properties of 3DP titanium were studied and compared to the properties of bone. The mechanical and physical properties were tailored by varying the binder (polyvinyl alcohol) content and the sintering temperature of the titanium samples. The fabricated titanium samples had a porosity of 32.2–53.4 % and a compressive modulus of 0.86–2.48 GPa, within the range of cancellous bone modulus. Other physical and mechanical properties were investigated including fracture strength, density, fracture toughness, hardness and surface roughness. The correlation between the porous 3DP titanium-bulk modulus ratio and porosity was also quantified.     

Recent advances in active control of civil engineering structures

Active control systems for civil engineering structures have attracted considerable attention in recent years, because they may become effective protective systems. This paper reviews briefly the current state-of-the-art and summarizes some recent advances in active control of civil engineering structures both theoretically and experimentally.     

Semi-quantitative mechanical characterisation of fibre composites in the sub-micron-range by SFM

The possibilities of using a Scanning Force Microscope (SFM) in tapping mode for a quantitative mechanical characterisation in the sub-micron-range are investigated. The test method and associated theory are presented and the technique is used to characterise glass fibre reinforced polyamide. Stiffness images are discussed with regard to the sample preparation method used and the mechanical properties of the interphase region between the fibres and the polyamide matrix.     

Investigation of the dynamic behaviour of civil engineering structures—new developments

EMPA Department Concrete Structures     

The slip casting and mechanical characterisation of magnesium-alumino-silicate glass-ceramics

An investigation of the slip preparation and casting of two magnesium-alumino-silicate glass powders has demonstrated the particular importance of the control of particle size distribution and slip viscosity in fabricating uniform glass-ceramics by powder methods. Measurement of strength and fracture toughness of fired material, coupled with particle size analysis and scanning electron microscopy has allowed interpretation of the quality of the material produced in terms of strength limiting flaws. Suggestions for the improvement of this type of material are made.     

Resistographic inspection of ancient timber structures for the evaluation of mechanical characteristics

Among non-destructive testing methods for the analysis of ancient timber structures, the Resistographic method is gaining great diffusion. This method is based on the registration of density variations through timber sections by means of an electronic drill and nowadays it is generally employed only to detect the presence of defects and damage. The present study is about the use of Resistographic method to evaluate mechanical characteristics of timber and, with this aim, an experimental program on wood-worm damaged timber has been carried on. Results show the usefulness of this non-destructive testing method as it allows the investigation through the interior part of timber and thus can give a quite reliable idea of local strength of wood in the examined section. That gives an useful parameter for the detection of recoverable elements in standing timber structures to be restored. In the present research, beech compressive strength has been evaluated from small clear wood specimens, while the evaluation of strength of dimensional lumber is outside the scope of the work.

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Résumé La méthode d'essai non-destructif dite Résistographique, est désormais la plus répandue pour l'analyse d'anciennes constructions en bois. Son application, qui se base sur l'enregistrement des variations de densité à l'intérieur d'une section en bois, à l'aide d'une perceuse électronique, n'est à présent utilisée que pour repérer d'éventuels défauts et endommagements. Cette étude concerne l'utilisation de la méthode Résistographique permettant d'évaluer les caractéristiques mécaniques du bois de construction. Dans ce but, on a expérimenté cette méthode sur des éléments de construction en bois de hêtre, en partie vermoulus. Les résultats démontrent l'utilité de cette méthode d'essai non-destructif qui permet d'examiner l'intérieur des bois, et d'en vérifier avec efficacité la résistance. Tout ceci nous permet d'individualiser tous les éléments récupérables dans les constructions en bois devant être restaurées. Dans cette recherche, on a derterminé la résistance du hêtre grace à des échantillons prismatiques, mais la résistance du bois des poutres en dimension d'usage réel, étant en dehors de l'objet de cette étude, n'a pas été mesurée.

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Editorial Note The University of Naples is a RILEM Titular Member.     

Experimental characterisation of the drying effect on uniaxial mechanical behaviour of mortar

The main objective of this present study was to evaluate, for a standard mortar, the drying effect on its mechanical behaviour. Numerous uniaxial compression tests were thus performed with loading-unloading cycles. They were carried out on different samples previously preserved under various conditions of conservation: preserved from desiccation, air drying and rapid drying at 60°C. The obtained results showed significant influences of these conditions on the material behaviour (increase in strength, decrease in Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio) and the necessity of taking into account the coupling effects between mechanical—poromechanical behaviours and drying.     

Fabrication and characterisation of CdSe photonic structures from self-assembled templates

We demonstrate here a method to fabricate CdSe photonic crystal from a very cheap fabrication route of templated self-assembly. The hexagonal close-packed photonic crystals are formed by the electrochemical growth of CdSe through the interstitial spaces between polymer nano/micro sphere templates. The confocal voids containing photonic crystals can be made either interconnected or well separated, with high uniformity. Structural and optical characterisation confirms the good quality of electrochemically grown CdSe. These cheaply fabricated 2D photonic crystals provide a wide range of opportunities for optoelectronic devices.     

Probabilistic model for fatigue crack growth and fracture of welded joints in civil engineering structures

This paper presents a probabilistic assessment model for linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). The model allows the determination of the failure probability of a structure subjected to fatigue loading. The distributions of the random variables for civil engineering structures are provided, and the relative importance of these random variables is determined. An example of a bridge detail is provided in order to show the application of the model. Partial factors are derived for the case of fatigue of welded joints in civil engineering structures. The failure probability appears to be relatively insensitive to the failure criterion (attainment of a through-thickness crack or fracture) when considering the total fatigue life.     

Change in dynamic parameters and safety assessment of civil structures

Information about safety degradation over time is needed when estimating the residual lifetime of a civil structure, which must be a factor in the assessment of the overall economic utility of a strengthening intervention. Changes in the structure’s dynamic properties may often provide quantitative evidence that damaging phenomena are underway. In this paper, two symptoms, namely the reduction in stiffness and the increase in energy dissipation, were assumed to be directly associated with structural damage and safety degradation. In the last part of the paper, in order to show possible strategies for relating dynamic measurements to damage, the analysis of a bridge pier subjected to periodic monitoring is reported.     

Fracture mechanical characterisation of mixed-mode toughness of thermoplast/glass interfaces

According to studies conducted by, e.g. Liechti and Chai [J. Appl. Mech. 58 (1991) 680], Yuuki et al. [Eng. Fract. Mech. 47 (3) (1994) 367] and Ikeda and Miyazaki [Eng. Fract. Mech. 59 (6) (1998) 725], a significant increase of interfacial toughness is observed, whenever the magnitude of the bond tangential shear load of the asymptotic elastic mixed-mode state is increased in either direction. Between these extremes the interfacial toughness curve exhibits a pronounced minimum, which, according to Hutchinson and Suo [Mater. Sci. Eng. A 107 (1989) 135] is believed to represent the so-called intrinsic adhesion, i.e. the failure toughness under pure local mode I loading. Within linear elasticity, the biaxial, singular near-tip solution for an open interface crack may be employed for characterising the local stress state as long as non-linearities such as, e.g. crack-wall contact and plastic flow are contained within a zone small enough compared to the extension of the singular opening-dominated fields. Then, the critical stress state is given in terms of bimaterial stress intensity factors K_1,c, K_2,c and the fracture toughness under mixed-mode loading may be expressed in terms of the critical energy release rate as a function of the mode-mixity ψ=tan⁻¹K_2,c/K_1,c. The stress intensities have to be extracted from a stress analysis of the specimen under the critical load, which in the present work is performed by means of an FE-model of the loaded sample.     

A practical engineering method for fuzzy reliability analysis of mechanical structures

The fuzzy sets theory in reliability analyses is studied. The structure stress is related to several other variables, such as structure sizes, material properties, external loads; in most cases, it is difficult to be expressed in a mathematical formula, and the related variables are not random variables, but fuzzy variables or other uncertain variables which have not only randomness but also fuzziness. In this paper, a novel approach is presented to use the finite element analysis as a “numerical experiment” tool, and to find directly, by fuzzy linear regression method, the statistical property of the structure stress. Based on the fuzzy stress–random strength interference model proposed in this paper, the fuzzy reliability of the mechanical structure can be evaluated. The compressor blade of a given turbocharger is then introduced as a realistic example to illustrate the approach.     

Microstructural and mechanical characterisation of ODS ferritic alloys produced by mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering

Abstract

Powders with nominal composition Fe–14Cr–2W–0·4Ti were mechanically alloyed (MA) with Y₂O₃ in a planetary ball mill at two different rotational speeds. Consolidation of the as milled powders was performed by spark plasma sintering (SPS). As milled powders showed a highly deformed microstructure with elongated nanometre grains and, depending upon the rotational speed, different stages of the nanocluster evolution were observed to be produced. In the case of consolidated materials, grain growth occurred during the SPS process and it was possible to observe the influence of the MA parameters, with larger and more homogeneously distributed grains at the higher rotational speed. Additionally, Ti was observed to be incorporated to the nanoclusters after SPS, indicating a further step in their evolution during consolidation. The mechanical behaviour of the SPS compacts was evaluated by tensile and small punch testing also showing the influence of the MA parameters in the material behaviour.     

Principal component thermography for flaw contrast enhancement and flaw depth characterisation in composite structures

This study reports on the application of principal component thermography to the nondestructive inspection of composite structures. The technique is based on a singular value decomposition of the measured response to pulsed thermal excitation as applied in the course of a normal flash thermographic inspection. Trials on synthetically generated data show evidence of excellent noise-rejection qualities which manifest high levels of flaw contrast relative to that present in the unprocessed data. A simple analytical expression is then derived that relates a characteristic time furnished by the decomposition to the flaw depth, providing a basis for flaw depth estimation. This framework is shown to provide flaw-depth estimates with good levels of precision and robustness. Finally, application to experimental data is considered. An AS4/3501 composite laminate sample containing an assortment of teflon inserts is subject to active thermographic inspection and the response data analysed using the proposed approach. The results conclusively demonstrate the practical efficacy of the approach, and confirm the attractive properties outlined in relation to the numerical tests.