On the structure of Ni9 steel and its tensile fracture behaviour

The tensile curves as well as original and selective dissoluted fracture surfaces have been studied. The function of the γ' phase on the mechanical properties of the steel has been investigated. The fracturing process consists of: formation of dimples – formation of splits in dimples – the splits in dimples join each other to form secondary cracks – formation of inner lips and tiny dimple regions. The morphology of fracture looks like ridges and peaks. It is considered that the column boundaries in ingots may split easily; this causes bedding fracture and the degradation of Z–direction properties. The formation of bedding fracture is affected markedly by heat treatment and tensile temperature. Some ways of improving mechanical properties have been discussed.     

Effects of transformed ferrite growth on the tensile fracture characteristics of a dual-phase steel

The effects of transformed ferrite growth on the tensile fracture characteristics of a dual-phase steel were investigated by observing crack initiation, propagation, and fracture behaviors. Crack initiation occurred by decohesion between martensite and ferrite. However, cracks propagated along the ferrite-martensite interface in a high temperature quenched specimen, whereas in specimens quenched from lower temperature cracks propagated into the martensite particle. Tensile fracture behaviors were not strongly influenced by the cooling rate. At both cooling rates of 5.6 and 0.1 °C/sec, specimens quenched from high temperature fractured by partially brittle fracture mode, but fracture mode changed to ductile mode as the quenching temperature decreased. The effect of transformed ferrite on the fracture mode was not substantially different from that of retained ferrite. However, the crack initiation and propagation was influenced by the variation in martensite distribution caused by different growth behavior of transformed ferrite.     

Microstructural effects on the cleavage fracture stress of fully pearlitic eutectoid steel

The microstructural parameter(s) controlling the critical cleavage fracture stress, σ_F, of fully pearlitic eutectoid steel have been investigated. Independent variation of the pearlite interlamellar spacing,S _p, and the prior austenite grain size were accomplished through heat treatment. Critical cleavage fracture stresses were measured on bluntly-notched bend specimens tested over the temperature range -125 °C to 23 °C. The cleavage fracture stress increased with decreasingS _p, and was independent of prior austenite grain size. Fine pearlitic microstructures exhibited temperature, strain-rate, and notched-bar geometry independent values for σ_F, consistent with propagation-controlled cleavage fracture. Coarse pearlitic specimens exhibited temperature-dependent values for σ_F over a similar temperature range. Inclusion-initiated fractures were generally located at or beyond the location of the peak normal stress in the bend bar, while cracking associated with pearlite colonies was observed to be closer to the notch than the predicted peak stress location. The calculated values for σ_F were independent of both the type and location of initiation site(e. g., inclusion, pearlite colony). Thus, although inclusions may provide potent fracture initiation sites, their presence or absence does not necessarily change σ_F in fully pearlitic microstructures. formerly Graduate Student, Carnegie Mellon University     

Influence of deformation substructure on flow and fracture of fully pearlitic steel

Tensile stress-strain data over the whole strain range were obtained for a range of pearlites from very coarse to relatively fine (interlamellar spacings 0.53 and 0.13 μm, respectively). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for pearlite subjected to various amounts of strain was performed. Coupling mechanical data with TEM examination provided a detailed picture of how pearlite yields, deforms, work hardens, and fails under uniaxial tension. It is shown that yielding and work hardening of pearlite are largely controlled by processes occurring in ferrite. The role of a cementite plate at low stresses is mainly to limit the slip distance in ferrite. It is found that the tensile fracture is determined by processes in the colonies with lamellae parallel to the tensile axis and that the stress necessary to break a cementite plate corresponds to the true U.T.S. The influence of interlamellar spacing on the yield strength, flow stress, and the true U.T.S. is quantitatively explained.     

The structure and properties of some heavily cold worked aluminum alloys

Several particle containing aluminum alloys have been heavily cold worked by wire drawing and torsion, and their stress-strain behaviour monitored. The shape of the resulting stress-strain curve is shown to be independent of the mode of deformation and consists of an initial region of high work hardening rate which gradually decreases to a reasonably constant work hardening region at large strains. This terminal work hardening rate increases with increasing solute, which inhibits dynamic recovery mechanisms.Two of the alloys containing higher volume fractions of particles exhibit work softening in addition to work hardening. The results are discussed in terms of some of the current work hardening models.     

Deformation and fracture of miniature tensile bars with resistance-spot-weld microstructures

Plastic deformation of miniature tensile bars generated from dual-phase steel weld microstructures (i.e., fusion zone, heat-affected zone, and base material) was investigated up to final rupture failure. Uniaxial tensile true stress-strain curves beyond diffuse necking were obtained with a novel strain-mapping technique based on digital image correlation (DIC). Key microstructural features (including defects) in each of these three metallurgical zones were examined to explore the material influence on the plastic deformation and failure behavior. For weld fusion zones with minimal defects, diffuse necking was found to begin at 6 pct strain and continue up to 55 to 80 pct strain. The flow stresses of the weld fusion zones were at least twice those of the base material, and fracture strains exceeded 100 pct for both materials. The heat-affected zones exhibited a range of complex deformation behaviors, as expected from their microstructural variety. Only those fusion zones with substantial defects (e.g., shrinkage voids, cracks, and contaminants) failed prematurely by edge cracking, as signaled by their highly irregular strain maps.     

深过冷条件下珠光体特征尺寸及断裂行为分析

采用扫描电镜(SEM)、透射电镜(TEM)、Instron拉伸机、原位拉伸等实验方法,研究了深过冷工艺对珠光体特征尺寸及断裂行为的影响.结果表明:在相同奥氏体晶粒尺寸条件下,过冷奥氏体通过深过冷条件后,比直接等温所得的珠光体团尺寸降低47.9％,珠光体平均片层间距细化12％.拉伸性能表明,在相同等温温度下,通过深过冷后...     

The effect of alloying elements and microstructure on the strength and fracture resistance of pearlitic steel

The processes of ductile and brittle fracture in fully pearlitic steel and their relation to both the scale of the microstructure and the presence of substitutional alloy elements have been investigated at room temperature using smooth tensile and over a range of temperatures using V-notched Charpy impact specimens. The results show that the early stages of cracking, revealed in both types of specimen, are largely the result of shear cracking of the pearlite lamellae. These cracks grow and can reach a size when they impinge upon the prior austenite boundary; afterward the character of fracture can be either microvoid coalescence or cleavage, depending on test conditions and metallurgical variables. Further, the carbide plates of the pearlite lamellae can act as barriers to the movement of dislocations as is the case normally with grain boundaries. For pearlite an optimum spacing of approximately 0.2 μm resulting from a balance between carbide plate thickness and interlamellar spacing was found to enhance toughness, although such changes are much smaller than corresponding changes due to varying alloy elements. Specific alloy elements used herein strengthened the lamellar ferrite in pearlite, inhibiting the movement of dislocations while also usually decreasing the lamellar cementite plate thickness for the same spacing. This dual behavior results in enhanced resistance to the initiation and propagation of microcracks leading to an improvement in strength, ductility, and toughness. The most effective alloy elements for the composition ranges studied in fully pearlitic steels are Si and Ni for strength improvement, and Ni and Mn for toughness.     

The effect of cyclic loading on the dislocation structure of fully pearlitic steel

The fatigue behavior and associated crack inititation of pearlite has been correlated with developing dislocation configurations in a cyclically deformed fully pearlitic steel. Under fatigue conditions at low stress amplitudes, dislocations are found to be generated and largely confined to the cementite/ferrite interfaces, most likely due to the development of elastic incompatibility stresses between the cementite and ferrite. This deformation mode encourages fatigue crack initiation parallel to the cementite lamellae. The fatigue limit of pearlite appears not to be influenced by the interlamellar spacing, a result basically different from that found in monotonic deformation where yielding and flow are strongly affected by the spacing. The apparent differences are discussed in terms of the different dislocation configurations formed during monotonic and cyclic deformation.     

Influence of cold forming on the tensile behavior and properties of low-carbon microalloyed steel

The tensile behavior and properties of cold formed low-carbon microalloyed steel with its microstructure of all ferrite and pearlite (F+P) were investigated.Bending and flattening deformations were carried out in the laboratory on hot-rolled sheets in order to simulate the cold forming process of steel sheets during pipe fabrication and sampling of high frequency straight bead welding pipes.A comparison of the tensile behavior and properties of the material made before and after cold forming indicates that cold deformation alters the tensile behavior and properties of the material to a certain degree depending on the manner of the cold deformation and the degree.The research on the Bauschinger effect indicates that for the steels investigated,when the plastic strain is small,the back stress increases rapidly with the increase of the plastic strain and then rapidly tends to saturation.The finite element analysis indicates that the change in the properties of the steel sheets due to cold forming is a result of the Bauschinger effect and work hardening.The mechanism of the change in the properties is also given in this study.     

The process of crack initiation and effective grain size for cleavage fracture in pearlitic eutectoid steel

The process of cleavage crack initiation and the character of the effective grain size which controls the fracture toughness of pearlitic eutectoid steel has been investigated using smooth tensile and precracked Charpy impact specimens. The results demonstrated that initial cracking in both specimens was largely the result of shear cracking of pearlite;i.e., localized slip bands in ferrite promoted cracking of the cementite plates, which was then followed by tearing of the adjacent ferrite laths. Such behavior initially results in a fibrous crack. In the tensile specimen, the initiation site was identified as a fibrous region which grew under the applied stress, eventually initiating an unstable cleavage crack. In precracked impact specimens, this critical crack size was much smaller due to the high state of stress near the precrack tip. Fracture mechanics analysis showed that the first one or two dimples formed by the shear cracking process can initiate a cleavage crack. Using thin foil transmission electron microscopy, a cleavage facet was found to be an orientation unit where the ferrites (and the cementites) of contiguous colonies share a common orientation. The size of this orientation unit, which is equal to the cleavage facet size, is controlled by the prior austenite grain size. The influence of austenite grain size on toughness is thus explained by the fact that the austenite grain structure can control the resultant orientation of ferrite and cementite in pearlitic structures. Y.J. PARK, formerly with Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA.     

700 MPa大梁钢拉伸断后分层现象的解析

 通过对国内某厂生产的700 MPa级别汽车大梁钢热轧板进行力学性能检测,发现拉伸断口产生分层现象,利用金相显微镜、扫描电镜、透射电镜与能谱分析等手段研究其断后分层现象并分析其产生的原因。试验钢的平均屈服强度与抗拉强度分别为766.9 、839.0 MPa,平均断后伸长率为19.2%,皆达到性能指标的要求。研究结果表明,铸坯与轧材中的夹杂物与析出物分布情况较好,不是产生分层现象的主要原因,热轧板厚度方向中部的贝氏体与马奥岛成带状偏聚,造成厚度方向上明显的塑性差异,直接导致了分层现象产生。试验钢产生拉伸分层的原因被解析出,为实际生产提供了改进方向。     

Deformation characteristics of retained ferrite and transformed ferrite in a dual-phase steel

The deformation behaviors of retained ferrite and transformed ferrite in a dual-phase steel were studied by observing slip lines, strain development, and inhomogeneity of strain in each phase. The retained ferrite was more deformable and had a lower degree of the strain inhomogeneity than the transformed ferrite. The degrees of strain inhomogeneity of both ferrites became larger with increasing tensile strain. Variations in the distribution, amount, and morphology of martensite caused the difference in the deformation behavior between the two types of ferrite by changing the degree of constraint for ferrite deformation.     

冷变形316L不锈钢在高温高压水中的应力腐蚀

采用恒应力强度因子K=33 MPa·m^1/2的加载方法,利用直流电压降方法在线监测核辅管道316L不锈钢在高纯水中应力腐蚀裂纹扩展速率.对比200、250、280和325℃温度下,氩气除氧和含有2 mg·L^-1溶解氧的水化学环境中材料的裂纹扩展速率发现:溶解氧为2 mg·L^-1时的裂纹扩展速率明显比氩气除氧时的裂纹扩展速率高.氩气除氧时,裂纹扩展速率在250℃时有一个最高点;溶解氧为2 mg·L^-1的条件下,裂纹扩展速率随温度的升高而升高.     

On the strength of heavily cold worked in situ composites

The strengths of heavily deformed two phase materials are much in excess of those expected on the bases of the strain hardening behavior of the phases comprising such a composite. In this paper a model is developed to explain the strengths of this class of materials and the predictions of it are compared to results obtained in several systems. The basis for the model is that additional (geometrically necessary) dislocations are generated during deformation of two, as compared to single, phase materials as a result of the inherently greater strain incompatibility between adjacent grains in a two phase material. Thus the model predicts that, other factors being the same, the greater the disparity between the flow curves of the composite constituents, the greater the excess strength generated. The strain hardening behaviour of the individual phases influences also the strengths obtained in a composite. Composites comprised of materials for which dynamic recovery processes are particularly effective do not display large incremental strengths as these processes eliminate both geometrically necessary and statistical dislocations. Conversely, composites containing materials which do not dynamically recover (e.g. iron which work hardens linearly) display rather impressive excess strengths as a result of the complementary interaction between statistical and geometrical dislocations. The agreement between the model developed and experimental results is good. The two adjustable parameters of the model (one concerning the partitioning of the geometrical dislocations between the phases and the other a measure of the inherent strain incompatibility between them) have physically plausible numerical values.     

新型奥氏体耐热钢C-HRA-5原位拉伸断裂机理

 断裂机理是材料力学性能研究的主要方向之一。为了阐明C-HRA-5钢单轴拉伸断裂机理,通过原位SEM观察拉伸全过程,对该耐热钢内部微裂纹萌生—扩展—断裂进行了深入分析。结果表明,C-HRA-5钢在室温和700 ℃下都表现出典型的韧性断裂特征。材料断裂主要受到M₂₃C₆相和MX相的影响,微裂纹由M₂₃C₆相聚集的三叉晶界处萌生。室温时,微裂纹与晶内MX相处裂纹相连,形成穿晶裂纹;高温时,微裂纹在剪应力的作用下形成局部穿晶裂纹,导致材料最终失效。     

Fatigue of annealed and cold worked stable and unstable stainless steels

Fatigue crack growth rates (FCGR) in AISI 301 and 302 austenitic stainless steel alloys have been measured in controlled load cycles withR = 0.05. Both annealed and cold rolled conditions were examined. The austenite phase of the AISI 301 alloy was unstable under stress and transformed martensitically to α′ to a much greater extent than the AISI 302 alloy. At low values of mean stress the unstable alloy had a lower FCGR than the more stable 302 alloy. The FCGR increased with mean stress until values of mean stress ⪞70 MPa, where the FCGR was independent of mean stress and was the same for both alloys. Various metallographic and macroscopic measurements were made to try to understand this behavior. It was concluded that residual compressive stress due to transformation at the crack tip was responsible for the lower crack growth rates of the unstable 301 alloy. Cold worked specimens had significantly lower crack growth rates than the annealed specimens, and both alloys behaved identically. Formerly with the Department of Metallurgy, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign     

TEM investigations of the structural evolution in a pearlitic steel deformed by high-pressure torsion

A fully pearlitic steel was deformed by high-pressure torsion up to very high strains, and the changes in the microstructure were determined by analytic and conventional transmission electron microscopy. The imposed strain leads to a fragmentation and an alignment of the cementite lamellae parallel to the shear plane. The electron energy-loss near-edge-fine structures of the Fe-L_2,3-edge of the iron matrix and the cementite lamellae were measured with high spatial resolution. The results indicated that after high-pressure torsion, the iron matrix contains finely dispersed carbon-rich areas that do not show the electronic fingerprint of cementite. However, the refinement in microstructure leads to an enormous increase in mechanical strength.