Pea pod, broad bean pod and okara, potential sources of functional compounds

Disposal of by-products generated by plant food processing represent an important problem in the industry, but these by-products are also promising sources of compounds which may be used for their technological or nutritional properties, and today they are considered as a possible source of functional compounds. This work has contributed to the knowledge of three legume by-products, pea pod (Pisum sativum L.), broad bean pod (Vicia faba L.) and okara from soybean (Glycine max L.). These three by-products have in common that their major fraction is dietary fibre (pea pod: 58.6 g/100 g; okara: 54.3 g/100 g; broad bean pod: 40.1 g/100 g). Sucrose, glucose and fructose are the most important soluble sugars in both pods; however α-galactosides (stachyose and raffinose) are in greater concentration in okara. Protein is also a considerable component, although in higher amount in okara than in pods. Okara presents a large quantity of fat however both pods show similar low contents. Linoleic acid is the most important fatty acid; oleic acid is remarkable in okara and pea pod and linolenic acid in broad bean pod. Mineral amount is major in by-product pods than in okara, and the most important minerals are potassium, calcium and iron.     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

Evolution and kinetics of monosaccharides,disaccharides and α-galactosides during germination of lentils

The effect of light and seed rinsing during the germination of lentil seeds (Lens culinaris var. vulgaris, cultivar Magda-20) on the level of monosaccharides, disaccharides and α-galactosides (raffinose, ciceritol and stachyose) was investigated. The total soluble sugar content corresponded to about 9% of the mature seed weight, about 65% of which was α-galactosides. Germination brought about a large decrease in α-galactosides: 18% to 40% losses after 3 days and 100% after 6 days. However, glucose, which was not detected in ungerminated seeds, as well as fructose and sucrose gradually increased during germination. The content of α-galactosides decreased more rapidly when germinating seeds were given 6 h light per day, but under these conditions there was also a major reduction in the levels of fructose, glucose and sucrose. Seeds rinsed daily showed a greater reduction of α-galactosides and an increase in the levels of fructose, glucose and sucrose. When seeds were germinated for 10 days in the dark with daily rinsing, the content of α-galactosides decreased gradually during the first 4 days and they were not detected after 6 days. Under these conditions, fructose, glucose and sucrose, which represented about 3% of the mature seed weight, started increasing after day 2 and represented more than 13% of the germinated seed dry weight after 10 days.     

Oligosaccharides in Eleven Legumes and Their Air-Classified Protein and Starch Fractions

Oligosaccharide compositions of flours from dehulled seeds of eleven legumes were determined by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy. While soybean contained 11.7% sugars, concentrations in lupine, cowpea, chickpea and lentil were about 8%; lima, navy and northern beans, field pea, mung bean and fababean contained about 5% of sugars. Sucrose represented 20–55% of the total sugars; stachyose was the principal α-galactoside in most species. In addition, high amounts of manninotriose were found in chickpea and lentil flours whereas verbascose was a major component in field pea, mung bean and fababean flours. The nine species and biotypes which contained starch were pin milled and air-classified into protein-rich and starch-rich fractions. The protein fractions were 40–90% higher than the flours in α-galactosides, especially raffinose, manninotriose, stachyose and verbascose. The starch fractions were depleted in α-galactosides, the concentrations varied from 1.2–2.8% of the fraction.     

Comparative effect of boiling and solid substrate fermentation using the tempeh fungus (Rhizopus oligosporus) on the flatulence potential of African yambean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa L.) seeds

The tropical African yambean (AYB, Sphenostylis stenocarpa L.) is a protein-rich underutilized African legume. The presence of the flatulence- and diarrhoea-causing raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO: raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) or α-galactosides has limited the food use of African yambean seeds. To reduce this limitation, non-traditional processing methods are required. Seeds of three varieties were (i) examined for the flatulence- and diarrhoea-causing RFO and (ii) fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus for tempeh production. The traditional tempeh production process involved dehulling, soaking in water for 24 h, boiling in water for 30 min, inoculation and fermentation. In addition, the traditional tempeh procedure was modified by using 1% citric acid solution instead of water for soaking and cooking. Comparisons with traditionally cooked beans, which involved boiling in water for 4 h, were made. Boiling seeds for 4 h resulted in 8–30% reduction of total α-galactosides in the three varieties, while the traditional tempeh procedure resulted in an almost complete loss (98%) of the same (P < 0.05). The modified procedure resulted in a bacteria-free tempeh but α-galactoside reduction was 22–39%. Both tempeh production processes were clearly more effective than was traditional cooking in reducing the flatulence potential of the AYB seeds.     

Hydrolysis of oligosaccharides in soybean products by Debaryomyces hansenii UFV-1 α-galactosidases

α-Galactosides are abundant sugars found in legumes such as soybean. Since humans and monogastric animals lack α-galactosidase in the digestive tract, they are unable to digest these sugars, which induce flatulence. The use of α-galactosidases is promising as a means to overcome this problem, and to increase the consumption of soy products. Immobilized α-galactosidase, derived from Debaryomyces hansenii UFV-1, exhibited an activity of 40 U per g of silica and an activity yield of 50%. The optimum pH of free and immobilized α-galactosidase was 5.0 and the optima temperatures were 60 and 80 °C, respectively. The soymilk stachyose was completely hydrolyzed by different enzyme forms after incubation for 4 h at 60 °C, while raffinose was reduced by 100%, 25% and 68% by free, immobilized enzymes and permeabilized cells, respectively. The soy molasses treatment with free enzyme for 6 h promoted reduction in stachyose and raffinose contents by 100% and 50%, respectively.     

Sugars and acids of strawberry varieties

The sugar and acid compositions of six strawberry (Fragaria×ananassa Duch.) varieties from 1997 and 1998, grown in different conditions, 26 samples in all, were investigated by GC as trimethylsilyl derivatives. The major sugars were glucose (1.89–4.52?g/100?ml), fructose (2.14–4.14?g/100?ml) and sucrose (0.90–3.87?g/100?ml), the major acids being citric (0.73–1.58?g/100?ml) and malic (0.22–0.69?g/100?ml). Total sugar content (glucose+fructose+sucrose) varied from 5.35?g/100?ml to 10.96?g/100?ml in accordance with soluble solids (°Brix). The correlation between them showed a linear regression y=0.873x-0.420, the percentage of determination of the regression model being 82.1%. Among one variety only, ‘Senga Sengana’, the percentage of the model was 86.9%. No significant differences were found between the strawberries from conventional versus those from organic farms. Contents of sugars and soluble solids were lower in varieties ‘Jonsok’ and ‘Honeoye’ than in ‘Korona’, ‘Bounty’ and ‘Polka’. The concentrations of malic acid were significantly higher in Senga Sengana, Jonsok and Bounty than in other varieties.     

糖水煎煮对人参化学成分的影响

目的：考察单糖、双糖、多糖水煎煮对人参化学成分的影响。方法：采用高效液相色谱法、苯酚-硫酸法及福林酚法分别测定糖水煎煮人参、单煮人参及人参生药中人参皂苷、水溶性糖和总酚等有效成分含量。结果：糖水煎煮后人参中稀有人参皂苷F1、F2、Rg3、化合物K含量及16 种皂苷单体加和值均显著增加;糖水煎煮人参中水溶性糖和总酚含量均显著高于人参生药组,且水溶性糖含量高于单煮人参组（除木糖醇组）,葡萄糖、麦芽糖、蔗糖、红糖、阿斯巴甜和硫酸软骨素组总酚含量显著高于单煮人参组（P＜0.05）。结论：糖水煎煮可提高人参中稀有皂苷、水溶性糖和总酚含量。     

Effect of processing on antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in East Africa

The effects of hydration, autoclaving, germination, cooking and their combinations, on the reduction/elimination of antinutrients, flatus-producing compounds and the improvement of in vitro protein digestibility of three selected Phaseolus vulgaris varieties were investigated. Reduction in the amount of total α-galactosides was attained by employing hydration process and was due to the differential solubility of the individual oligosaccharides and their diffusion rates. Due to their heat-sensitive nature, saponins, trypsin inhibitors and phytohaemagglutinins, diminished drastically to undetectable amounts when heating processes (cooking and autoclaving) were employed. Hydration and germination processes were less effective in reducing trypsin inhibitors, saponins and phytohaemagglutinins as compared with cooking/autoclaving processes. Germination process reduced stachyose, raffinose, phytic acid and tannins which was due to metabolic activity. The combination of germination followed by autoclaving processes yielded the most promising result in this study. The bean variety Roba exhibited better protein digestibility on processing and thus has high potential to be used as a raw material for the manufacturing of value-added products.     

Functional lupin seeds (Lupinus albus L. and Lupinus luteus L.) after extraction of α-galactosides

Functional lupin seeds from two different cultivars of white (Lupinus albus L.) and yellow lupin (Lupinus luteus L.) each, were obtained by extraction of α-galactosides. The effect of extraction of α-galactosides from lupin seeds on different nutritional parameters (protein, fat, ash, dietary fibre, starch, sucrose, and vitamins B₁, B₂, E and C) and antinutritional factors (α-galactosides, trypsin inhibitor activity and inositol phosphates) were studied. In lupin seeds, α-galactosides were effectively removed and processed seeds contained very low amounts of flatulence causing factors (∼0.5–1%). Protein, fat and starch contents showed high retention in processed seeds (up to ∼130%). Sucrose and soluble dietary fibre, however, decreased significantly as a result of processing and retentions ranged from 10% to 60%, depending on the variety studied. Vitamins B₁, B₂, E and C were also reduced. Trypsin inhibitor activity was detected only in yellow lupin cultivars and inositol phosphate content was modified slightly after extraction. In summary, the functional lupin seeds, with low contents of α-galactosides, are a product of nutritional importance due to their high protein content, dietary fibre and fat contents as well as acceptable levels of thiamin, riboflavin and vitamin E. They can be incorporated as a proteic source, not only in animal feeding but also in a wide range of foods.     

Effect of soaking and hydrothermal processing methods on the levels of antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of Bauhinia purpurea L. seeds

The effects of various domestic processing methods such as soaking, cooking and autoclaving on the levels of certain antinutritional factors and in vitro protein digestibility of seeds of Bauhinia purpurea L., an underutilised legume collected from South India, were investigated. The raw seeds were found to contain antinutritional factors like total free phenolics (2.75 g/100 g), tannins (2.35 g/100 g), phytic acid (692 mg/100 g) and flatulence factors, raffinose (0.54 g/100 g), stachyose (1.17 g/100 g) and verbascose (0.95 g/100 g). Soaking the seeds in distilled water caused maximum reduction in the phytic acid content (37%), whereas soaking in NaHCO₃ solution reduced significant levels of phenolics and tannins (72% and 78%, respectively). A reduction in the levels of oligosaccharides (raffinose by 63%, stachyose by 42% and verbascose by 79%) was observed during cooking. Of the attempted treatments, autoclaving appeared to be most effective in reducing levels of all the investigated antinutrients, except phytic acid, and also improved the in vitro protein digestibility of B. purpurea seeds.     

Effect of cooking on the composition of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

The effect of cooking on levels of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors in beans and chickpeas was investigated. Significant (p < 0.05) variation existed among the beans and chickpeas with respect to their crude protein, starch, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), mineral, phytic acid, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) contents. Cooking beans and chickpeas in water significantly increased protein, starch, SDF, IDF, TDF, Mn and P contents (on a dry weight basis), whereas reduced ash, K, Mg, TIA, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide contents were observed. Colored beans (black, cranberry, dark red kidney, pinto and small red bean) contained tannins, whereas little tannin in white-colored beans (great northern and white pea bean) and chickpeas (Desi and Kabuli type) was detected.     

Effect of different roasting methods on the proximate by composition,flow properties,amino acid compositions,colour, texture,and sensory profile of the chickpeas

Roasting is a common process for chickpeas to improve their texture, palatability, appearance, shelf-life, physical, and functional properties. This study aimed to determine the effect of different roasting methods (conventional, microwave, and microwave + conventional) on the proximate and amino acid compositions, powder properties, texture, and sensorial properties of the chickpeas. For this purpose three different roasting times (3, 5, and 7 min), microwave powers (100, 300, and 600 W), and microwave roasting + conventional roasting treatment (100 W + 250 °C, 300 W + 250 °C, and 600 W + 250 °C) were applied to raw chickpea samples. The moisture content and water activity values of roasted chickpeas were found to be lower than 7% (w.b.) and 0.50, respectively. The lower ash and protein contents, hygroscopicity value, wettability time and higher fat content and L* value were observed for control compared to roasted samples. The flowability behaviour of the samples was found at a fair level. Roasting methods significantly affected the amount of amino acids in chickpeas but do not reduce the nutritional quality of their proteins. The hardness value of chickpea samples from the suture and cheek angle was decreased parallel to the increase in the roasting temperature and time. The highest sensory scores in terms of general appeal were obtained from the combined group (300 W–250 °C) for 3 min.     

生料与熟料发酵生产食醋的分析研究

结合电子鼻和电子舌技术,分析生料与熟料发酵生产食醋及其风味品质。结果表明,糖化和酒精发酵阶段,熟料工艺产酒精速度较快,发酵结束时生料发酵醪液的总酸[（1.29±0.06） g/100 mL]和还原糖[（0.37±0.06） g/100 mL]含量均显著高于熟料发酵醪液的总酸[（0.57±0.07） g/100 mL]和还原糖[（0.08±0.04） g/100 mL]（P＜0.05）。醋酸发酵阶段,生、熟料醋汁的总酸和还原糖含量并无显著区别（P＞0.05）,不挥发酸含量在生料发酵[（1.48±0.05） g/100 mL]中显著高于熟料发酵醋汁[（1.31±0.01） g/100 mL]（P＜0.05）。食醋风味物质差异,主要表现在氮氧化合物和硫化物;晒制过程对食醋风味影响明显,但晒制后两种食醋产品的风味差异逐渐缩小。发酵过程中和晒制前后的食醋在苦味、涩味、酸味回味、鲜味和咸味方面均差异明显。     

Raffinose family oligosaccharides and sucrose contents in 13 Spanish lupin cultivars

The contents of raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) and sucrose in 13 Spanish cultivars of lupin (Lupinus albus, Lupinus luteus and Lupinus angustifolius) were studied, with the aim of selecting those with highest amounts of these oligosaccharides in order to obtain pure RFOs for use as ingredients in functional foods. The levels of sucrose and RFOs (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) were determined using high perfornnance liquid chromatography (HPLC). There were large variations in the levels of individual RFOs between lupin cultivars. L. albus seeds were characterised by the lowest verbascose content (∼0.4%), L. luteus seeds by the highest contents of stachyose (∼7.4%) and verbascose (∼3.1%) and the lowest of sucrose (∼1.2%),and L. angustifolius seeds by the highest sucrose (∼3.4%) and the lowest stachyose (∼4.6%) contents. Furthermore, there was a wide variation in total α-galactosides between species, with a remarkably high content found in L. luteus (9.5–12.3%) which was about twice that of other lupin cultivars. For this reason, L. luteus seeds are the best choice for obtaining pure RFOs for use as prebiotics in functional foods.     

Kinetics of soluble carbohydrates by action of endo/exo α-galactosidase enzyme in lentils and peas

The kinetics of soluble sugars (available sugars and f-galactosides) during the action of naturally occurring endogenous f-galactosidase for up to 90 min in lentil and pea flours has been studied, and it has been compared with the addition of commercial f-galactosidase enzyme. Raw lentil and pea seeds presented sucrose, raffinose, stachyose and verbascose, whilst ciceritol was only present in lentils. No monosaccharides were detected in either of the raw seeds. After the action of endogenous f-galactosidase or by the addition of commercial f-galactosidase, fructose, glucose and galactose were detected in legume flours. The action of endogenous f-galactosidase for 15-90 min in lentils or peas produced a reduction of sucrose (77% and 73-81%), raffinose (73-77% and 59-79%), stachyose (76-81% and 77%) and verbascose (100% and 70-83%), respectively. When commercial f-galactosidase was added to lentils or peas the observed decreases were in sucrose (77-73% and 62-64%), raffinose (61-68% and 41-48%), stachyose (80-85% and 67-91%) and verbacose (100% and 77-95%) respectively. The action of endogenous f-galactosidase or the addition of commercial f-galactosidase could produce lentil or pea flours with very small flatulence factors and, therefore, with a high functionality. According to these data, the optimal conditions to obtain lentil and pea flour with the lowest f-galactoside content were the addition of commercial f-galactosidase at 37 ºC in buffer pH 5.5 for 90 min. In these conditions the largest contents in fructose, glucose, galactose and sucrose were obtained.     

百年蔗红糖营养品质的综合评价分析

为探究百年蔗红糖的成分和营养品质,测定3批百年蔗红糖和14批市售红糖的理化指标、营养成分、活性成分及抗氧化活性,并结合熵权法逼近理想排序法（Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution,TOPSIS）综合评价百年蔗红糖的营养价值。结果显示：百年蔗红糖中含有还原糖分（9.10%）、蛋白质（1.54 g/100 g）、脂肪（1.30 g/100 g）、13种氨基酸（0.87 g/100 g）、12种矿物质元素（19 812.84 mg/kg）,其中人体必需氨基酸（0.16 g/100 g）及微量元素K（18 466.70 mg/kg）、Ca（629.33 mg/kg）、Fe（59.57 mg/kg）、Zn（12.18 mg/kg）含量均较高;总黄酮、总多酚活性成分含量3.69 mg/g、5.69 mg/g;抗氧化能力分析百年蔗红糖的半数清除率（Median Inhibition Concentration,IC50）为15.01~16.44 mg/mL,铁还原能力法（Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power,FRAP）为0.053~0.063 mmol/g;熵权TPOSIS综合分析显示红糖S1、S8、S12综合营养品质较佳,可筛选为优质红糖。该研究通过构建熵权TOPSIS功能评价模型,综合评红糖的营养价值,以期为红糖深加工及药用保健功能的产品开发提供一定的参考。     

聚类法分析不同品种树莓的加工特性

以15 个不同品种的树莓鲜果为实验材料,对果实的组成分、理化指标、VC、粗蛋白、总酚和花色苷含量进行测定分析。通过聚类分析,筛选出适合不同树莓产品加工的品种。结果表明：不同品种树莓的硬度值、果实出汁率、可溶性固形物含量、可滴定酸含量、糖酸比差异较大,硬度值在18.20～49.50 g之间,‘Cuthbert’硬度值最小（18.20 g）,硬度值最大的为‘米克2号’（49.50 g）,出汁率分布变幅为58.27%～79.80%,其中‘Cuthbert’出汁率最低（58.27%）,出汁率最高的为‘Creston’（79.80%）。可溶性固形物含量在6.86%～10.60%之间,可溶性固形物含量最高的为‘Cuthbert’（10.60%）,最低的为‘菲尔杜德’（6.86%）。糖酸比最大的为‘Sunrise’（7.42）,‘Willamette’糖酸比值最小（1.75）。15 个树莓品种的多酚氧化酶、过氧化物酶的活性和色泽稳定性差异较大。VC含量在6.86～10.60 mg/100 g之间;粗蛋白含量分布变幅为0.70～1.49 g/100 g;总酚含量在1.41～3.44 g/100 g之间。花色苷含量介于72.35～393.88 mg/100 g之间。初步评价：第1类的‘Rideau’、‘米克1号’和‘米克2号’,适合于果汁、果酒类产品的加工;‘Zeva Remontant’、‘Nova’适合树莓罐头类产品加工;适合加工果脯类产品的‘Willamette’、‘Omet’、‘Festival’和‘Sunrise’为第2类。‘Rideau’、‘米克1号’、‘米克2号’、‘Willamette’、‘Sunrise’和‘Nova’这6 个品种果实综合品质比较好,是适合于进一步树莓栽培品种选育和深加工的良好品种。     

Classification of Honey from Its Bee Origin via Chemical Profiles and Mineral Content

Raw honeys from four different bee species, namely the honey bees and stingless bees, were classified based on its chemical profiles, mineral contents and heavy metals. Chemical profiles including proximate composition, predominant sugars, hydroxymethylfurfural content, and diastase activity were determined following official methods while mineral and heavy metals contents were obtained from atomic adsorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) measurements, respectively. Both hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis show high possibility of distinguishing honey by its bee species of honey bees (Apis spp.) and stingless bees (Heterotrigona itama) based on distinctive differences in chemical compositions and mineral contents. Potassium and sodium were the major elements in raw honey samples at average of 904.9 and 617.6 mg/kg, respectively. Honey from stingless bee contained more protein, 0.85 g/100 g and less total sugar of fructose and glucose at 24.99 g/100 g. The information of bee speciation origin of honey bees and stingless bees enhances the identity of honey on the product labelling.