Quality of maize grains treated with allyl isothiocyanate stored in hermetic bags

This purpose of this study was to evaluate the quality of maize grain treated with allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) and stored under hermetic conditions. Maize grains with moisture contents of 14.8 or 17.9% wet basis (w.b.) initial moisture content were packaged in high density polyethylene bags and submitted to treatment with AITC at a concentration of 300 μL kg⁻¹. The bags were stored in controlled temperature chambers at 15, 25 or 35 °C. At 30-day intervals, for a period of 150 days, three bags were removed from the chambers and the grains were submitted to commercial classification, moisture content, bulk density, germination potential and electrical conductivity analyses. It was verified that AITC at 300 μL kg⁻¹ has no significant effect on the physiological quality of maize grains stored in hermetic bags. The microbiological analyses indicate the control of fungi and yeasts on the grains stored with 17.9% w.b. and treated with AITC. The maize grains stored with 14.8% w.b. moisture content in hermetic systems suffered no deterioration and retained their quality for a longer period than grains stored with 17.9% w.b. moisture content, independent of AITC treatment.     

Aerobic Storage and Utilization of Ammonia-Treated Distillers Wet Grains for Lactating Dairy Cows

Two experiments were conducted to determine the influence of NH₃ treatment on the aerobic stability of distillers wet grains and value of the NH₃-treated grains as protein supplements for lactating cows. In Experiment 1, fresh distillers wet grains were treated with NH₃ at 0, 1.57, 3.14, or 4.71% of DM, compacted in polyethylene bags, and kept in aerobic storage at 16, 27, or 38°C for 14 d. Intermediate and high NH₃ reduced temperature increases, mold growth, and spoilage and improved DM recoveries. Low ammonia grains were less stable and deteriorated faster than untreated grains.In Experiment 2, lactating Holstein cows were supplemented with NH₃-treated distillers wet grains (13.8% of total DM) or soybean meal (10.1% of total DM) for 70 d. Intakes of DM tended to be lower on ammoniated grains (19.4 and 17.6 kg/d). Milk yields (27.1 vs. 27.9 kg/d) and composition were not significantly different among treatments, but efficiency of converting feed to milk and income over feed costs were greater for ammoniated grains than soybean meal.     

Effects of PICS bags on insect pests of sorghum during long-term storage in Burkina Faso

The PICS bags, originally developed for cowpea storage, were evaluated for sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) preservation. Batches of 25 kg of sorghum grain were stored in 50 kg PICS or polypropylene (PP) bags under ambient conditions for 12 months and assessed for the presence of insect pests and their damage, seed viability and, oxygen and carbon dioxide variations. The grain was incubated for 35 days to assess whether any insects would emerge. After six months of storage, oxygen levels decreased in the PICS bags compared to polypropylene bags. After 12 months of storage, only two pests, Rhyzopertha dominica and Sitophilus zeamais were found in the PICS bags. However, in PP bags there were additional pests including Tribolium castaneum and Oryzeaphilus mercator and Xylocoris flavipes. Grain weight loss and damage caused by these insects in the PP bags were significantly higher compared to those stored in PICS bags. Germination rates of sorghum grains stored in PP bags decreased significantly while no changes were observed in grains stored in PICS bags when compared to the initial germination. After the incubation post storage period, there was a resurgence of R. dominica in sorghum grains from PICS bags but the population levels were significantly lower compared to polypropylene bags. PICS bags preserved the quality and viability of stored sorghum grains and protected it from key insect pests. The PICS technology is effective for long-term sorghum storage but the potential resurgence of insects in low-oxygen environment calls for further research.     

Resistance to aerobic deterioration of total mixed ration silage: effect of ration formulation,air infiltration and storage period on fermentation characteristics and aerobic stability

BACKGROUND: High aerobic stability can be expected when wet brewers' grains are stored as a total mixed ration (TMR) silage. To understand the factors affecting the stability, the effects of ration formulation, air infiltration and storage period were studied. RESULTS: A TMR containing wet brewers' grains, hay, maize, wheat bran, beet pulp and molasses was ensiled in laboratory silos for 14 and 56 days. The effects of hay species (lucerne or sudangrass) and air infiltration (Exp. 1) and of excluding one, two or three items from the six ingredients (Exp. 2) were examined. Ethanol was the main fermentation product in all TMR silages in this study. Aerobic deterioration occurred in 14 day silages prepared with sudangrass hay along with air infiltration (Exp. 1), and with the simplest recipe where three items (hay, maize and wheat bran) were excluded (Exp. 2). No deterioration occurred in 56 day silages regardless of ration formulation and air infiltration. Yeasts receded in 56 day silages, except with the simplest recipe, to the 10² cfu g^?1 level and remained undetectable in the presence of air (Exp. 2). CONCLUSION: TMR silage can resist aerobic deterioration provided that a sufficient ensiling period has elapsed. Silages stored for only a few weeks may be susceptible to deterioration when air is infiltrated or where fewer ingredients are used in the TMR mixture. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

一种糖蜜酒精酵母中长期保藏技术的研究

主要介绍一种以改良甘油冷冻保藏法保藏糖蜜酒精酵母菌的技术。实验结果表明,利用改良甘油冷冻保藏法保藏菌株5年,酵母菌体形态及主要性质特征保持良好,且该法操作简便、经济有效,可满足糖蜜酒精生产菌种中长期保藏要求。     

Field evaluation of the long-lasting treated storage bag,deltamethrin incorporated, (ZeroFly® Storage Bag) as a barrier to insect pest infestation

The deltamethrin incorporated polypropylene (PP) bag, ZeroFly^® Storage Bag, is a new technology to reduce postharvest losses caused by stored-product insect pests. Maize was pre-fumigated and used for the following treatments: ZeroFly bags filled with untreated maize, PP bags filled with maize treated with Betallic Super (80 g pirimiphos-methyl and 15 g permethrin per liter as an emulsifiable concentrate (EC)), and PP bags filled with untreated maize (control). The experiment was conducted from February–August 2015, at four sites in different locations of the Middle Belt of Ghana. Moisture content (MC), number of live and dead insects, insect damaged kernels (IDK) and maize weight loss data were collected monthly. ZeroFly bags and Betallic treatment significantly reduced insect damage compared to the control treatment. ZeroFly bags were able to keep IDK levels below 5% for 4 months, but the levels increased to 5.2 and 10.2% by 5 and 6 months of storage, respectively. In the control, IDK increased significantly over time and reached 32% after 6 months. The ZeroFly bag was effective against Sitophilus, Tribolium and Cryptolestes species for 4 months. Mean weight loss of ≤3.68% was recorded in ZeroFly bags during 6 months of storage whereas 11.88% weight loss occurred in the PP bags by 6 months of storage. Based on our results, ZeroFly bags were found to have potential for use in the reduction of postharvest grain losses in bagged grains. Maize may still have been infested during bagging hence ZeroFly bags were effective for storage for only 4 months. However, greater benefits of using ZeroFly bags are realized if insect-free grains or legumes are stored in bags.     

Short communication: Effects of molasses products on productivity and milk fatty acid profile of cows fed diets high in dried distillers grains with solubles

Previous research has shown that replacing up to 5% [of dietary dry matter (DM)] corn with cane molasses can partially alleviate milk fat depression when cows are fed high-concentrate, low-fiber rations containing dried distillers grains with solubles. The primary objective of this study was to determine whether dietary molasses alters milk fatty acid (FA) profile or improves solids-corrected milk yield in the context of a more typical lactation diet. A secondary objective was to assess production responses to increasing rumen-degradable protein supply when molasses was fed. Twelve primiparous and 28 multiparous Holstein cows (196 ± 39 d in milk) were blocked by parity and assigned to 4 pens. Pens were randomly allocated to treatment sequence in a 4 × 4 Latin square design, balanced for carryover effects. Treatment periods were 21 d, with 17 d for diet adaptation and 4 d for sample and data collection. Treatments were a control diet, providing 20% dried distillers grains with solubles (DM basis), 35% neutral detergent fiber, 30% starch, and 5% ether extract; a diet with 4.4% cane molasses replacing a portion of the corn grain; a diet with 2.9% molasses supplement containing 32% crude protein on a DM basis; and a diet with 5.8% (DM basis) molasses supplement. Animal-level data were analyzed using mixed models, including the fixed effect of treatment and the random effects of period, pen, period × pen interaction, and cow within pen to recognize pen as the experimental unit. Diets did not alter DM intake, milk production, milk component concentration or yield, feed efficiency (DM intake/milk yield), body weight change, or milk somatic cell count. Milk stearic acid content was increased by the diet containing 5.8% molasses supplement compared with the control diet and the diet containing 2.9% molasses supplement, but the magnitude of the effect was small (12.27, 11.75, and 11.69 ± 0.29 g/100 g of FA). Production data revealed a dramatic effect of period on milk fat content and yield. Milk fat content decreased during the course of the experiment (least squares means = 3.16, 2.81, 2.93, and 2.64 ± 0.09% for periods 1 to 4, respectively), as did milk fat yield (1.20, 1.03, 0.98, and 0.79 ± 0.05 kg/d). Exchanging molasses-based products for corn at 2.9 to 5.8% of dietary DM did not influence productivity and had minute effects on milk FA profile. The limited responses in this study may have been influenced by dietary unsaturated FA content or the advancing stage of lactation of cows in the study.     

Invited review: The use of distillers products in dairy cattle diets

Distillers grains with solubles (DGS) is the major coproduct of ethanol production, usually made from corn, which is fed to dairy cattle. It is a good protein (crude protein, CP) source (>30% CP) high in ruminally undegradable protein (∼55% of CP) and is a good energy source (net energy for lactation of approximately 2.25 Mcal/kg of dry matter). The intermediate fat concentration (10% of dry matter) and readily digestible fiber (∼39% neutral detergent fiber) contribute to the high energy content in DGS. Performance was usually similar when animals were fed wet or dried products, although some research results tended to favor the wet products. Diets can contain DGS as partial replacement for both concentrates and forages, but DGS usually replaces concentrates. Adequate effective fiber was needed to avoid milk fat depression when DGS replaced forages in lactating cow diets. Nutritionally balanced diets can be formulated that contain 20% or more of the diet dry matter as DGS. Such diets supported similar or higher milk production compared with when cows were fed traditional feeds. Although DGS can constitute more than 30% of diet dry matter, gut fill may limit dry matter intake and production in diets with more than 20% wet DGS and that also contain other moist feeds. The fiber in DGS, which often replaces high-starch feeds, does not eliminate acidosis but minimizes its problems. Distillers solubles, which are often blended with distillers grains to provide DGS, can be fed separately as condensed corn distillers solubles. Other distillers coproducts besides DGS such as high-protein distillers grains, corn germ, corn bran, and low-fat distillers grains are becoming available.     

Impact of opening hermetic storage bags on grain quality,fungal growth and aflatoxin accumulation

Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags are used by farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa for pest management of stored grains and products, including maize. These bags hermetically seal the products, preventing exchange with external moisture and gases. Biological respiration within the bags create an environment that is unsuitable for insect development and fungal growth. This study was conducted to determine the impact of routine opening of the storage bags for maize consumption on fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination. Maize with moisture contents (MC) high enough to support fungal growth (15%, 16%, 18% and 20%) was stored in PICS bags, which were opened weekly and exposed to humid conditions (85% RH) for 30 min over a period of 8 weeks and 24 weeks. Monitors indicated that oxygen defused into the open bags but did not reach equilibrium with the bottom layers of grain during the 30-min exposure period. Fungal colony forming units obtained from the grain surface increased 3-fold (at 15% MC) to 10,000-fold (at 20% MC) after 8 weeks. At both 8 weeks and 24 weeks, aflatoxin was detected in at least one bag at each grain moisture, suggesting that aflatoxin contamination spread from a planted source of A. flavus-colonized grain to non-inoculated grain. The results indicate that repeatedly breaking the hermetic seal of the PICS bags will increase fungal growth and the risk of aflatoxin contamination, especially in maize stored at high moisture content. This work also further demonstrates that maize should be properly dried prior to storage in PICS bags.     

不同保鲜包装方式对菜心品质的影响

为了考察不同保鲜包装方式对菜心品质的影响,采用厨房纸巾包装（ZJ）、普通塑料保鲜袋（CPE）、气调保鲜袋（EFB、JG）保鲜菜心,以不做任何保鲜处理的菜心为对照（CK）,分别在常温（18～23 ℃）和低温（4～6 ℃）下贮藏5和25 d,评价菜心的外观商品性、腐烂率、黄化率、失重率、叶绿素、水分、可溶性糖和维生素C含量的变化。结果表明:气调保鲜袋（EFB、JG）包装的保鲜效果优于CPE和CK,ZJ最差。较于其它包装方式,EFB和JG处理的菜心外观商品性更高,保持较高的营养品质。其中JG对菜心保鲜效果最佳,低温贮藏25 d时腐烂率为0.03%,黄化率为0.42%,失重率为1.55%,叶绿素含量降低幅度为5.01%,水分下降幅度为1.26%;低温贮藏15 d时,可溶性糖含量与第1 d无显著差异（P>0.05）,维生素C含量降低幅度为11.43%,显著低于其它包装处理（P<0.05）。综上,低温配合气调保鲜袋贮藏能延长菜心保鲜期,是一种较好的菜心贮藏保鲜方法。     

Efficacy of Insecticide Incorporated Bags against Major Insect Pests of Stored Paddy in Sri Lanka

A study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of an insecticide (deltamethrin) incorporated bags (Zerofly®) against the insect attacks during paddy storage under Sri Lankan conditions. The study was conducted at Institute of Post Harvest Technology (IPHT), Anuradhapura andat the warehouse of Paddy Marketing Board (PMB), Anuradhapura. Paddy sample in Zerofly® sacks were stacked at both locations and for controls, untreated polysack bags were used. Paddy samples that were collected before storage and at monthly intervals during the storage period were analysed for moisture content, weight loss due to insect damages, Thousand Grain Mass (TGM), germination percentage, Total Milling Yield (TMY) and Head Rice Yield (HRY). Data was analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) by Statistical Analysis System (SAS). The moisture content of paddy grains fluctuated between 13.3 – 14.3% during storage period but any significant difference was not observed among bag types. The level of insect damages in control was increased with storage time while the initial level of insect damage of treated bags remained unchanged. The mass loss due to insect damagesof grains was significantly higher (p=0.05) in untreated bags than treated bags. The insect damage was reduced by 3.5-4.a% using Zerofly® bags during paddy storage. In addition, dead insect bodies were found onouter surface of the insecticide incorporated bags but no live or dead insects were found on untreated bag surface during storage. Mainly rice weevil (Sitophils oryza) and lesser grain borer (Rhysoperthadominica) were found in paddy samples of untreated bags and number of insects increased with time. The germination percentage of grains in untreated bags was significantly higher than to thecontrol. It was reduced from 93% to 60-64% and 93% to 82-83% in control and treated bags respectively. During the six months of storage, TGM did not show any significant difference (p=0.05) among different treatments. TMY and HRY resulted significantly (p=0.05) lower values of paddy stored in untreated bags than Zerofly® bags. Use of insecticide incorporated bags can reduce the loss of TMY and HRY of paddy during storage. The study revealed that insecticide treated bags are an appropriate packaging material to protect stored paddy from insect infestations under Sri Lankan conditions.     

Hermetic storage for control of common bean weevil,Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say)

This study evaluated hermetic storage as a method of controlling Acanthoscelides obtectus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) in stored beans. Recently harvested “vermelhinho” cultivar of the common red bean was used, which had already been infested by A. obtectus in the field. Beans with a moisture content of 15.0% wet basis were stored in silo bags (3 kg), plastic bottles (1.5 L), or non-hermetic glass containers (3 L) (control) for 120 days. The packages were stored in an acclimatized chamber at 25 °C with a relative humidity of 70 ± 5%. At time intervals of 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days, three packages of each treatment were opened, and analyses were performed to assess the infestation percentage by insect pests, moisture content, density, electrical conductivity, germination percentage, and cooking time. There was no increase in infestation by A. obtectus in the grains stored in the silo bags and plastic bottles during the 120 days of storage; however, there was a significant increase in infestation in the grains in non-hermetic storage (control). The quality of the beans correlated with infestation; it was not altered in the hermetic storage systems and decreased in the control sample. Hermetic storage of common beans is an effective tool in the control of A. obtectus.     

Maintaining dryness during storage contributes to higher maize seed quality

Smallholder farmers in Pakistan store their seeds and grains in porous polypropylene (woven) and jute bags or in bulk. Seed stored in these containers is susceptible to fluctuating seasonal relative humidity and temperature, which promote mold and insect growth. The present study assessed the performance of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags for maize seed storage during a two-month period. Seed moisture content increased in polypropylene bags while it remained constant in PICS bags. No change in germination was observed in maize seeds stored in PICS bags while in polypropylene bags it was reduced in half when compared to the initial germination. Seed stored in polypropylene bags had higher insect damage with a weight loss of 35% while in PICS bags the infestation was minimal with a weight loss of about 3%. Higher aflatoxin contamination levels were observed in seeds stored in polypropylene than PICS bags. PICS bags are effective at preserving the dryness of maize seed in storage during high relative humidity conditions, which leads to maintenance of seed quality.     

Studies on the conditions of growth of baker's yeast,grown in solution of molasses or debis

Molasses and debis (slurry of dates) can be used as a medium for the growth of yeast. Optimum conditions for the growth of baker's yeast, grown in a medium of molasses and debis have been examined. A temperature of 25 °C, a pH of 4.5, a concentration of 5% (W/V) solution of molasses or debis and culture shaking are the optimum conditions for the growth of yeast.     

Evaluation of postharvest preservation strategies for stored wheat seed in Ethiopia

Limited information exists on postharvest preservation strategies of stored wheat in Ethiopia. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of on-the shelf postharvest storage strategies of stored wheat in the country. The experiment consisted of eight treatments; (1) metal silos, (2) Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags, (3) Super GrainPro bags, (4) industrial filter cake dust applied to wheat in polypropylene bag, (5) plastic drums, 6) Triplex applied to wheat in polypropylene bag, 7) Triplex applied to wheat in plastic drum, and 8) polypropylene bag as control. Measurements of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, live adults of insects per kg, percentage seed damage, and percentage of weight loss, germination and seedling vigor were determined every two months for six months. Results indicated that storage strategies such as PICS and Super GrainPro bags, filter cake, Triplex, and plastic drums led to a significantly lower live insect density compared to the control. Besides, Triplex and filter cake dust or use of hermetic bags also resulted in a significantly lower rate of seed weight loss (%) compared to the control. After six months of storage, means ± SD germination of seed from the polypropylene bag (control) had decreased to 68.0 ± 6.1% while wheat in all other storage strategies exhibited means ± SD germination capacity ranging from 92.0 ± 3.6% to 98.0 ± 1.0%. The present results demonstrate the potential of preserving stored wheat without relying on synthetic insecticides by using hermetic bags, filter cake, and Triplex, with advantages over traditional strategies used by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. We recommend that hermetic bags, filter cake dust, and Triplex powder should be promoted for use by farmers for the postharvest preservation of their stored wheat.     

Monitoring of the vitamin C content of frozen green beans and Padrón peppers by HPLC

HPLC (using a C18 column, water at pH 2·2 as mobile phase, and UV detection) was used to monitor the vitamin C content of deep-frozen (-22°C) green beans and Padrón peppers over 12 months. Unblanched beans and peppers lost ⩾97% of their vitamin C within 1 month of freezing, whether or not they were contained in bags sealed under vacuum. Blanching reduced the beans' vitamin C content by 28%, but limited further decreases to between 3 (vacuum sealed) and 10% (no vacuum) in 12 months. These results confirm the utility of blanching in the preservation of vegetables by deep-freezing. © 1998 SCI.     

复合保鲜剂对鲜湿面条保藏效果的影响

本文研究了不同保鲜剂对鲜湿面条的保藏效果,以菌落总数、pH、白度、质构和感官品质为指标,根据多种保鲜剂复配及辅助剂的互补增效作用,研究出适合鲜湿面条长时间贮藏的复合保鲜剂。结果表明:在鲜湿面条中添加复合保鲜剂(0.2%海藻酸钠+0.04%单辛酸甘油酯+0.15%丙二醇),在保藏7 d时,感官评分、pH、白度和菌落总数都符合国家标准;添加复合保鲜剂(0.6%山梨糖醇+0.4%碳酸钠+0.1%单辛酸甘油酯+0.15%丙二醇+3%酒精),在保藏第8 d时,面条的感官评分、pH、白度符合国家标准,在保藏第12 d时,测得菌落总数仍符合国家标准。以上两种复合保鲜剂都能使鲜湿面条在常温(25℃)条件下保藏7 d,而复合保鲜剂(0.6%山梨糖醇+0.4%碳酸钠+0.1%单辛酸甘油酯+0.15%丙二醇+3%酒精),可以更好地延缓鲜湿面条的腐败变质,保鲜时间在8 d以上,并且操作简单、经济成本低,更有利于鲜湿面条工业化生产。     

Microbial numbers, rumen fermentation, and nitrogen utilization of steers fed wet or dried brewers' grains

Holstein steers were fed corn silage supplemented with either wet or dried brewers' grains to determine effects of heat drying commercial brewers' grains. Four rumen-fistulated steers were fed a 12.5% crude protein diet in a single reversal design experiment. Brewers' grains supplied 45% of the protein of the diet. Bacterial numbers, concentration of ciliated protozoa, and ammonia concentration in the rumen were higher, and rumen pH was lower, for steers fed wet brewers' grains. Concentrations of rumen volatile fatty acids were similar for both diets. Ruminal digestibility of dry matter decreased when wet versus dried brewers' grains were fed (56.9 versus 39.3%). The rate of dry matter passage from the rumen was faster with wet brewers' grains. In Experiment 2, 12 steers were in a 2 X 2 factorial design. Diets contained wet or dried brewers' grains supplemented at 22 or 40% of the diet dry matter (12.5 and 14.5% crude protein). Nitrogen retention was increased in steers fed the higher crude protein diet. Apparent digestible nitrogen, acid detergent fiber nitrogen, and nitrogen retention were higher with wet versus dried brewers' grains. Plasma essential and nonessential amino acids were also higher in steers fed wet brewers' grains. Alteration in microbial numbers, fermentation measurements, and nitrogen utilization were associated with more soluble nitrogen with wet (13.4%) versus dried (3.3%) brewers' grains.     

包装方式对西兰花物流保鲜品质的影响

为减少蓄冷剂用量,研究普通聚乙烯(polyethylene,PE)包装袋与微孔PE包装袋协同蓄冷剂的复合保鲜技术对西兰花物流保鲜品质的影响。结果表明:放入4袋蓄冷剂组比不放蓄冷剂组保鲜效果要好,而放入2袋蓄冷剂结合PE包装袋优于4袋蓄冷剂组,2袋蓄冷剂结合PE微孔袋包装的效果最佳。说明PE包装袋特别是PE微孔袋的协同使用可以弥补蓄冷剂用量减少后温度升高带来的保鲜品质下降问题,为解决目前蓄冷剂用量过大导致的成本升高难题提供了新的思路。     

Triple bag hermetic technology for post-harvest preservation of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of hermetic triple bagging using Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags for storage of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.). One set of experiments used grain heavily infested by Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) while a second set began with a low level infestation. Each experiment consisted of V. subterranea grain kept in four replicate 50 kg PICS bags or two replicate woven bags as controls. Two to five days after the beginning of the experiments, oxygen level inside the bags averaged about 21% (v/v) in the controls but decreased significantly in PICS bags, reaching 10% (v/v) with the heavily infested grain but falling only slightly in the lightly infested grain. After 7 months of storage, (i) the number of C. maculatus adults found between and within the grains, (ii) the 100 seed weight, (iii) the number of seed with holes, and (iv) the percentage germination of grain stored in PICS bags did not differ from what had been measured on the day that the experiment was set up. In woven bags, by contrast, there was a massive increase in C. maculatus numbers with means of 309 and 251 adults per 500 g in heavily and lightly infested grain, respectively. Grain weight losses in the woven bag controls ranged from 8 to 19% and the percentage of C. maculatus emergence holes per 100 seed increased from 51 to 135%.