Effects of practice and positional variables in acquisition of a complex psychomotor skill

40 Navy subjects practiced a three-dimensional tracking task in two positions (the apparatus either in front of,, or above, the subject) under distributed and massed practice schedules to determine the effects of these variables on acquisition of skill. Distributed and massed practice were defined in terms of trial (4 1/2 and 9 min.) and session (1 and 2 hr.) lengths with the subjects equally divided into these four groups: distributed trials, distributed sessions; distributed trials, massed sessions; massed trials, distributed sessions; and massed trials, massed sessions. Total training (practice and rest) time was identical for all groups. Results indicated that task position was a relevant variable in acquisition of skill, i.e. different practice schedules were optimal for the two positions studied.     

Assertion training with handicapped persons.

Investigated the effects of assertion training in 9 handicapped college students and 5 handicapped discharged rehabilitative medicare outpatients. Ss were matched on self-reported assertiveness and were assigned to 1 of 2 groups: (a) treatment Ss who received assertion training, and (b) waiting-list-control Ss who received no treatment for 5 wks and then received assertion training. Behavioral role playing, self-report, and activity budget pre- and posttest measures revealed that assertion-training Ss reported significantly greater gains in assertive behavior and showed greater improvement in performance on 7 criterion measures than did control Ss. 18 criterion measures did not show any differences between treatment and control groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of proactive inhibition upon the postdiscrimination generalization gradient.

Gave wavelength-discrimination or discrimination-reversal training to 8 groups of 12 naive domestic pigeons in an operant free-responding paradigm. 4 groups were trained, for 30 min. daily, to criterion. 2 of these groups learned the 2nd (reversal) task in a single continuous session (massed practice), while the 2 others continued with 30-min sessions (distributed practice). 4 control groups experienced only the 2nd discrimination, with either massed or distributed practice. All groups were then tested for generalization either immediately or 24 hr. after reaching criterion on the 2nd task. The reversal had no effect on immediate-test gradients. In the delayed test, however, the massed-practice reversal gradient was flatter and showed less area shift than the others, suggesting a proactive inhibition effect. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group treatment of preorgasmic women: Evaluation of partner involvement and spacing of sessions.

Assessed the effects of couples vs women group treatment for primary orgasmic dysfunction and massed vs distributed spacing of sessions. 22 women and their partners were blocked and randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment groups: couples massed, couples distributed, women massed, and women distributed. All participants served as their own waiting list controls. Results support the expectation that the couples and women groups would not differ on the self-activities measures. Contrary to the hypothesis, the couples groups were not superior on multiple measures that assessed couple activities and frequency of orgasm via couple activities. Spacing was significant on one variable: Distributed groups rated their spacing more helpful than did massed groups. Analyses of combined-group data for females revealed significant improvements in both self-sexuality and couple sexuality. Data for males showed significant long-term improvements on the majority of couple-activities measures. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of abilities on performance during practice: Effects of massed and distributed practice.

Prior research indicates that the influence of abilities on performance may change as a function of practice. The present research examined how learning styles influence the relationship between abilities and task performance. The styles examined were massed vs distributed practice. 209 Ss were asked to complete measures of spatial visualization and perceptual speed. They then practiced a complex skill acquisition task for 4 hrs under conditions that allowed them to pace their rate of practice. Analysis of several dependent measures revealed that perceptual speed contributed to task performance for 33 Ss who massed their practice, whereas spatial visualization contributed to performance for 61 Ss who distributed their practice. The implications of these findings for understanding the role of abilities in skill acquisition are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual conditioning with massed versus distributed unconditional stimuli in the absence of explicit conditional stimuli.

Rats received unsignaled shocks in an observation chamber, with different groups varying with respect to time between shocks. Twenty-four hours later the rats were returned to the observation chamber for a test of conditioning to contextual stimuli. The freezing response served as the dependent variable. In Experiment 1 we found that distributed shock trials (60 s) resulted in more context conditioning than did massed trials (3 s or 6 s). Experiment 2 replicated this intertrial interval (ITI) effect when total time in the context was equated for the massed and distributed groups. The observed beneficial effect of distributed practice for conditioning to contextual stimuli runs counter to the predictions of Pavlovian conditioning models that posit that the benefit of distributed conditioning trials for discrete conditional stimuli arises because of decreased contextual conditioning with longer ITIs (e.g., Gibbon & Balsam, 1981; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972). Although the basic effect of enhanced performance with longer ITIs is consistent with Wagner's rehearsal model (e.g., 1978), three findings argue against such an account. First, posttrial stimulation did not reduce the benefit obtained from distributed trials (Experiment 3). Second, intertrial distractors did not improve performance of the animals subjected to massed trials (Experiment 4). And third, the ITI effect was not eliminated when conditioning was brought to its asymptote (Experiment 5). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of assertion training on aggressive behavior of adolescents.

The effects of assertion training on aggressive adolescents' behavior were examined. 30 9th-grade students judged by peers to be aggressive were randomly assigned to assertion training, placebo, and no-treatment control groups. The experimental group received 8 50-min assertion training sessions, and the 2 other groups received either no contact or placebo sessions concerning decision-making. Results show that the assertion training yielded significant improvement on the assertion scale, but it had little effect on peer-judged aggression. The implications of the findings are discussed. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trial spacing and trial distribution effects in Pavlovian conditioning: Contributions of a comparator mechanism.

Two experiments, involving a total of 144 rats, investigated a potential basis for trial spacing and trial distribution effects. In Exp 1, a CS (e.g., CS A) was trained with either massed (e.g., A?→?A?→?A) or spaced (e.g., A A A) trials. When trials were massed, brief exposure to the training context (a condition typical of massed training) impaired responding, whereas more extensive exposure to the context during or after training reduced this apparent massed trials deficit. In Exp 2, different CSs were trained in either a massed (e.g., A?→?A?→?A?→?B?→?B?→?B?→?C?→?C?→?C) or a distributed (e.g., A?→?B?→?C?→?A?→?B?→?C, etc.) manner. Trials massed in this sense resulted in impaired responding to the CS, and this impairment was attenuated by posttraining extinction of the context cues. Thus, trial distribution and apparent trial spacing effects were, at least in part, reversible deficits in performance rather than failures of learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in assertive behavior: An empirical investigation.

Assertion training for women has been justified on the basis that women are generally less assertive than men or that women have unique problems in being assertive. A review of the literature for sex-related data from self-report measures of assertion indicated that without exception males report higher frequencies of assertive behavior than females. The means are significantly different, however, for only 4 (29%) of the 14 samples reviewed. Differential responding for males and females on individual items from the Adult Self Expression Scale was investigated using 4 samples of a total of 294 male and 408 female Ss. Men reported themselves as more assertive than women on items dealing with bosses and supervisors. Men also reported themselves as being more outspoken when stating opinions and as taking the initiative more readily in social contacts with members of the opposite sex. Women, on the other hand, reported themselves as more assertive in expressing love, affection, and compliments, as well as expressing anger to one's parents. The question of how these sex differences in assertive behavior are affected in assertion-training groups composed entirely of women is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of two short-term desensitization methods in the treatment of test anxiety.

2 short-term desensitization methods, accelerated massed desensitization and anxiety management training, were compared with standard systematic desensitization in terms of reducing self-reported test anxiety in 44 high test-anxious undergraduates. Posttreatment scores on the Suinn Test Anxiety Behavior Scale indicate that all 3 treatment procedures significantly reduced test anxiety as compared with a waiting-list control group. However, self-reported anxiety following treatment for the anxiety management training group was higher than for the standard desensitization and accelerated massed desensitization groups, and the standard desensitization procedure was significantly more effective than anxiety management training. Anxiety management training, a general or nonspecific program for anxiety control, reduced test anxiety with just 1 hr of direct training in counteracting anxiety. It did not, however, reduce other salient fears as measured by scores on a fear survey schedule. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two-year-olds learn novel nouns, verbs, and conventional actions from massed or distributed exposures.

Two-year-old children were taught either 6 novel nouns, 6 novel verbs, or 6 novel actions over 1 month. In each condition, children were exposed to some items in massed presentations (on a single day) and some in distributed presentations (over the 2 weeks). Children's comprehension and production was tested at 3 intervals after training. In comprehension, children learned all types of items in all training conditions at all retention intervals. For production, the main findings were that (a) production was better for nonverbal actions than for either word type, (b) children produced more new nouns than verbs, (c) production of words was better following distributed than massed exposure, and (d) time to testing (immediate, 1 day, 1 week) did not affect retention. A follow-up study showed that the most important timing variable was the number of different days of exposure, with more days facilitating production. Results are discussed in terms of 2 key issues: (a) the domain-generality versus domain-specificity of processes of word learning and (b) the relative ease with which children learn nouns versus verbs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response prevention (flooding) in rats: The effects of restricting exploration during flooding and of massed vs distributed flooding.

Conducted 2 experiments with 33 and 60 female hooded rats to determine ways of decreasing or increasing the efficacy of response prevention (flooding). In Exp. I, Ss were trained to avoid electric shock and following learning some groups were given the response-prevention treatment. (Response prevention consisted of thwarting the avoidance response while forcing Ss to remain in the presence of the feared stimuli.) Mechanically confining the Ss during response prevention (interfering with the occurrence of spontaneous exploration and locomotion) decreased the efficacy of the treatment in leading to extinction of the avoidance response. In Exp. II, Ss were trained to avoid intense shock and then were given response prevention in either 1 single, long-duration session or in several shorter sessions distributed over days (massed vs. distributed flooding). Results indicate that distributed response prevention was more effective than massed response prevention. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The temporal dynamics of a visual discrimination: The role of stimulus comparison and opponent processes.

The influence of trial spacing on simple conditioning is well established: When successive reinforced conditioned stimulus, CS+, trials are separated by a short interval (massed training), conditioned responding emerges less rapidly than when such trials are separated by longer intervals (spaced training). This study examined the influence of trial spacing on the acquisition of an appetitive visual discrimination in rats. Experiments 1 and 2 established that massed training facilitates the acquisition of such discriminations. The results of subsequent experiments demonstrated that this trial-spacing effect reflects the proximity of nonreinforced, CS-, trials to preceding (Experiment 3) and signaled (Experiment 4) presentations of the reinforcer. Experiment 5 showed that the facilitation of discrimination learning with massed training reflected an effect on learning rather than performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multimodal assessment of rehearsal treatments in an assertion training program.

50 nonassertive undergraduate Ss participated in a study designed to assess the efficacy of several behavior rehearsal procedures in an assertion training program. In addition, 15 highly assertive undergraduates also participated in the pretest assessment, which included behavioral, cognitive, and physiological measures. Following pretest, the nonassertive Ss were randomly assigned to a no-treatment control group or to groups that received 2 sessions of behavior rehearsal, exaggerated rehearsal, role-reversal training, or a treatment consisting of a combination of behavior rehearsal, modeling, and coaching. Pretest results indicate that the nonassertive Ss were rated as responding less assertively in the behavioral role play test and also reported themselves as being more anxious than the assertive Ss. Posttest data indicate that the role-reversal group was the least effective treatment in modifying self-reports of assertion behavior, while the exaggerated-rehearsal and full-treatment groups demonstrated the largest gains on several measures. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trial spacing is a determinant of cue interaction.

Four conditioned lick suppression experiments with rats examined the effect of trial spacing on cue interaction. Experiments 1 and 2 found overshadowing to be eliminated with massed compound stimulus- outcome pairings and the usual trial spacing effect to be reversed with compound acquisition trials. Experiment 3 found that whether acquisition compound- outcome pairings were massed or spaced determined the effect of posttraining extinction treatment. Extinction of the overshadowing cue reduced responding following massed training and increased responding following spaced training. Extinction of the context decreased responding following massed training. Experiment 4 found the conditioning and devaluation results to be associative and stimulus specific. These results are in accord with the extended comparator hypothesis (J. C. Denniston, H. I. Savastano, & R. R. Miller, 2001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporally massed CS presentations generate more fear extinction than spaced presentations.

Rodent fear conditioning models both excitatory learning and the pathogenesis of human anxiety, whereas extinction of conditional fear is a paradigm of inhibitory learning and the explicit model for behavior therapy. Many studies support a general learning rule for acquisition: Temporally spaced training is more effective than massed training. The authors asked whether this rule applies to extinction of conditional fear in mice. The authors find that both short- and long-term fear extinction are greater with temporally massed presentations of the conditional stimulus (CS). The data also indicate that once CS presentations are sufficiently massed to initiate, or "induce," extinction learning, further CS presentations are more effective when spaced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall?

The authors contrasted massed repeated reading with distributed repeated reading. In Experiment 1, massed repeated reading led to better passage recall than distributed repeated reading. In Experiment 2, massed repeated reading of a paraphrased version of an essay led to greater recall than massed repeated reading of a verbatim version of an essay. Although distributed repeated reading again led to greater recall than massed repeated reading, the distributed repeated reading of paraphrased version of an essay did not lead to greater levels of recall than the distributed repeated reading of a verbatim version of an essay. Results of Experiment 3 confirmed those of Experiment 2 and indicated that readers commit significantly less inspection time to a 2nd reading in a massed repeated reading situation than to a 2nd reading in distributed repeated reading situation. The results are discussed from the perspective of a deactivation hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in memory for massed and distributed repeated actions.

Adult age differences in memory for actions were investigated in 2 experiments in which actions were repeated with massed or distributed spacing. In Exp 1, Ss received a mixed series of actions, half performed once, the others twice, with repetitions either massed or distributed. Young Ss recalled more actions than did the elderly, and more distributed actions were recalled than massed actions. However, the Age?×?Spacing interaction was not significant. A probable inhibitory mechanism with a mixed list was avoided in Exp 2 by use of unmixed series. Actions were performed once only, twice only in massed repetitions, or twice only in distributed repetitions. The age difference was significant, and more actions were recalled in the distributed condition than in either of the other conditions, the results of which did not differ from one another. The Age?×?Conditions interaction was negligible. These results imply that elderly Ss are as likely as young Ss to encode contextual information while performing actions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of assertion training on acceptance of disability by physically disabled university students.

This pilot study focused on the effects of assertion training on 14 physically disabled undergraduates' acceptance of disability. A pretest–posttest control group design was utilized. Ss were randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a no-treatment control group. The hypotheses analyzed were that Ss given assertion training would show increases in Acceptance of Disability Scale scores, self-concept/esteem scores (Rathus Assertiveness Scale), and social interaction skills scores (Behavioral Observation Scale) when compared with individuals who did not experience assertion training. Significant results were obtained for all hypotheses indicating that the groups differed in acceptance of disability, self-concept, and social interaction. The study suggests that assertion training may be effective for increasing acceptance of disability in physically disabled students. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparator view of Pavlovian and differential inhibition.

In 3 experiments using rats as subjects, the authors varied trial spacing to investigate the conditions under which Pavlovian and differential inhibition are observed. Experiment 1 compared Pavlovian and differential inhibition with spaced training trials. Spaced trials resulted in only the Pavlovian inhibitor passing both summation and retardation tests. Conversely, Experiment 2 compared these 2 types of inhibition with massed training trials. This training resulted in only the differential inhibitor passing both tests for conditioned inhibition. Finally, in Experiment 3 all subjects experienced Pavlovian inhibition training with massed trials. Although this training by itself did not result in behavior indicative of inhibition, subjects that also experienced posttraining extinction of the training context did pass both tests for inhibition. Overall, these results are anticipated by the extended comparator hypothesis (Denniston, Savastano, & Miller, 2001) but are problematic for most contemporary associative learning theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)