Factor analysis of the domain of client expectancies about counseling.

446 college students completed a questionnaire measuring 20 expectancies regarding counseling. After item analysis, the instrument was reduced to 135 items comprising 17 expectancy scales. Scale scores were calculated for each S, and data analyzed using principal-components analysis with varimax rotation. Evidence of 4 expectancy factors was obtained: Personal Commitment, Facilitative Conditions, Counselor Expertise, and Nurturance. To clarify interpretation, scores on the 4 factors were correlated with Ss' responses to 13 items measuring how realistic respondents' expectancies were. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initial client expectancies in time-limited counseling.

Assessed the effects of (a) whether counseling was time-limited (12 sessions), (b) the interaction of time limits with the chronicity of the client's problem, and (c) the rationale given for time limits (time limits effective/appropriate vs a long waiting list) on the initial expectancies of clients. 80 female college students were asked to place themselves into the role of a client they saw interacting with a counselor on film. Pre- and postfilm written material manipulated the independent variables. Results show that Ss in the chronic (vs acute) problem condition had the most negative expectancies for the counseling relationship and outcome when the counseling was time-limited (vs unlimited). While the rationale for time limits did not affect the primary dependent variables, post hoc analyses of Ss' essay responses indicated that the waiting-list rationale stimulated more negative expectancies than the time-limits-effective/appropriate rationale. Contrary to predictions, time did not affect Ss' expectancies for client activity and responsibility and for counselor activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Manipulation of expectancies about counseling and psychotherapy: Review and analysis of expectancy manipulation strategies and results.

A comprehensive review was undertaken of investigations in which an attempt was made to manipulate clients' expectations for counseling or psychotherapy. Six strategies that have been used in attempting expectancy manipulation were described, and their effectiveness evaluated. Three sets of conclusions seem to be supported by the present data. First, the use of a complicated experimental intervention to manipulate expectancies seems to be both unnecessary and unfruitful. Audiotaped and videotaped interventions are most likely to be effective. Verbal interventions have typically been ineffective and effectiveness of printed documents is in doubt. Second, experience in actual counseling sessions may have an effect on clients' expectancies, but it is unclear whether the changes observed are a function of counseling or are due to some interaction involving the confounding factors that previous investigators have failed to eliminate. Third, identification of the specific conditions under which these expectancy manipulation strategies will produce expectancy changes requires further research. Finally, recurring methodological shortcomings are examined and suggestions for future research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of client and counselor expectancies regarding the duration of counseling.

Asked 594 college students seeking counseling at a university counseling center to indicate duration expectancies in the form of estimates of the number of sessions needed to resolve the problem(s) they were presenting. Following the initial interview, 40 counselors who saw the clients gave their own duration expectancies for 434 of the clients. The results of a comparison of estimates showed that clients consistently gave significantly lower mean estimates than counselors. No significant correlations were obtained between client or counselor duration expectancies and the number of weeks remaining in the school term or year. Clients with career development concerns and counselors of clients with these concerns gave the smallest mean estimates. Large mean and modal discrepancies occurred between client and counselor estimates for personal/social problems. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disruptive effects of disconfirmed expectancies about crowding.

Utilized a 2 (high vs low room density)?×?2 (forewarning of a crowded room vs no forewarning)?×?2 (simple vs complex task) design to examine the effects of anticipation of crowding on task performance of 80 undergraduates. More tasks were attempted and efficiency was higher when expectancies about the crowd were confirmed. Ss not told to anticipate a crowd who actually worked under high density and Ss warned about a crowd that did not materialize performed most poorly. These differences were largest for the complex task. The results of A. Baum and C. I. Greenberg (see PA, Vol 56:2328) were replicated with the performance data. Perceptions of the experimental room also differed as a function of anticipation, but failure to obtain a Crowding?×?Anticipation interaction did not support their hypothesis that anticipating a crowd induces perceptions identical to those obtained under actual crowding. Results are discussed in terms of disconfirmed expectancies being disruptive of performance, particularly complex task performance. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black students' counselor preference and attitudes toward counseling center use.

Surveyed 42 female and 33 male Black college students to determine factors related to Black student use of the university counseling center. Counselor preference, sex of client, sex of counselor, race of counselor, and type of problem were analyzed as to their effects on counseling center use. Results indicate that Black clients preferred Black counselors and that the likelihood of taking a problem to the counseling center increased as counselor preference increased. Also, the likelihood of taking a problem to the center was significantly greater if the counselor to be seen was Black rather than White. Client and counselor sex, and type of problem (personal or educational-vocational) had no effect on potential counseling center usage. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality differences and expectations about counseling.

We assessed the relation between conceptual system functioning and expectations about counseling and extend earlier research in 2 ways: (a) Client expectations are linked to a stable personality dimension, and (b) the conceptual system, rather than the conceptual level, model provided the theoretical rationale. Implications of these extensions are discussed. Measures of client conceptual stage and their expectations were taken immediately prior to initial meetings with counselors. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and a discriminant analysis of data from 60 clients revealed theoretically consistent separation between the 4 stages of conceptual functioning on 2 dimensions of expectations about counselor characteristics, attitudes and behaviors. The need to consider the influence of conceptual functioning in counseling process research is supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential importance faculty and students' place on counseling and psychological services.

179 university faculty were surveyed about how they would judge the importance of various counseling and psychological services, and 1,078 undergraduate students were surveyed to determine the differential importance faculty and students place on such services. Faculty interest in personal counseling, psychotherapy, drug counseling, and marital counseling was congruent with the traditional expertise and interests of psychologists practicing on college campuses. Students placed more emphasis on information-giving activities, such as educational counseling and academic advising, activities psychologists usually do not see as being in their domain. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Native American college students' preference for counselor race and sex and the likelihood of their use of a counseling center.

39 female and 23 male Native American college students completed questionnaires assessing their preference for counselor race and sex and the likelihood of their using a counseling center. Both females and males demonstrated a strong preference for Native American counselors, regardless of problem situation. Males preferred male counselors, but females expressed a preference for female counselors only if they had a personal problem. Likelihood of using the counseling center increased as counselor preference increased. Likelihood of using the counseling center increased if Ss could be seen by a counselor of the same race regardless of problem situation. Only in the personal-problem situation did likelihood ratings increase if Ss could be seen by a counselor of the preferred sex. Ss were less likely to indicate they would go to the counseling center with a personal problem if they would be seen by either their 3rd- or 4th-choice counselors. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment.

360 1st, 3rd and 5th graders and their 16 teachers from 3 school systems were interviewed in the fall and spring of the same school year to assess the developing relationship between teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment. Older children were less punitive than younger children. Teachers remained relatively punitive compared with 5th graders. Teachers with more punitive beliefs had students whose beliefs were more punitive when compared with students whose teachers had less punitive beliefs. Children and teachers thought that teachers should give more punitive responses than peers for the same misbehavior. The school systems that allowed corporal punishment had students with more punitive beliefs than the school system without corporal punishment. Results indicate that the school environment is perceived to be authoritarian and punitive by students and teachers. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preventive resources and emotion regulation expectancies as mediators between attachment and college students' stress outcomes.

In this study the authors examined both preventive psychological coping resources and negative mood regulation expectancies as potential mediators between parental attachment and two types of stress outcomes: stress symptoms and stress-produced emotions. Data were collected from 390 college students and separate structural equation models were tested for the outcomes of stress symptoms and emotions. Results suggested that for both models, as hypothesized, preventive resources and negative mood regulation expectancies functioned as mediators. Further, there was evidence that these results were similar for the model in which stress symptoms were used as an outcome, as well as the model in which stress-produced emotions were used as the outcome. Implications for a more complete understanding of psychological resources promoted by secure attachment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How social comparison mediates the relation between ability-grouping practices and students' achievement expectancies in mathematics.

This investigation tested the hypothesis that social comparison processes mediate the relation between ability-grouping practices in mathematics and students' achievement expectancies in a district-wide sample of 6th graders (N?=?452). Compared with between-classroom ability grouping, within-classroom grouping raises high achievers' achievement expectancies, math grades, and tendency to make downward comparisons (i.e., with a classmate who is worse at math). Within-classroom grouping lowers low achievers' expectancies and math grades and increases their tendency to make upward comparisons. When controls for the direction of students' social comparison choices and for their mathematics grades are introduced, the independent effect of ability grouping on achievement expectancies is consistently and substantially reduced. It is argued that ability-grouping practices constrain the choices available to students and teachers for social comparison of abilities and thereby influence the frame of reference students use for self-assessment and teachers use for assigning grades. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drinking habits and expectancies about alcohol's effects for self versus others.

Administered an alcohol effects questionnaire and a measure of drinking practices to 150 college students. Ss consistently expected alcohol to affect other people more than themselves for both positive effects such as social or sexual pleasure and negative effects such as impairment, except that moderate and heavy drinkers expected as much social/physical pleasure from alcohol as they expected others to receive. Moderate and heavy drinkers expected alcohol to enhance their own social and sexual pleasure, aggression, and tension reduction more than did light drinkers but did not differ in expected aversive consequences, suggesting that differences in anticipated reinforcement are more salient than anticipated impairment in influencing drinking behavior. Women expected less pleasure and tension reduction and more cognitive and motor impairment from alcohol but did not differ from men in expected enhancement of sexual pleasure, aggression, or expressiveness when differences in drinking habits were statistically controlled. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client stages of change and expectations about counseling.

The relation between client stages of change and client expectations about counseling was examined in a sample of 88 clients seeking services from a university-based outpatient clinic. Results of a canonical correlation indicated that the composite of the contemplation, action, and maintenance stages of change was significantly related to the expectation factors of Personal Commitment and Facilitative Conditions. The composite of the contemplation and maintenance stages of change accounted for additional variance in expectations for Facilitative Conditions, Counselor Expertise, and Nurturance. The significance and implications of these findings for counseling are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Asian international students' intentions to seek counseling: Integrating cognitive and cultural predictors.

This study integrated several cognitive and cultural predictors of Asian international students' intentions to seek counseling. Data from 295 Asian international students were used to determine whether help-seeking intentions could be predicted by a combination of cognitive variables (i.e., counseling attitudes and stigma concerns) and cultural factors (i.e., acculturation, Asian values, and loss-of-face concerns). Data supported a partially mediated model, such that participants who endorsed more traditional Asian values reported less positive counseling attitudes and lower help-seeking intentions. Contrary to expectations, however, loss-of-face and stigma concerns were associated with stronger intentions to seek counseling, which may have been due to participants' fears of sharing psychological problems with significant others and preference for the confidential nature of the counseling relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A survey of students' attitudes toward counseling at a predominantly Black university.

A questionnaire survey of 377 students' attitudes toward counseling at a predominantly Black university produced results similar to those reported for predominantly White campuses. The predisposition to seek out counseling services depended on the type of problem. Most Ss were willing to discuss with the counselor matters related to vocational and educational concerns; however, for personal adjustment problems there was significant decline in the frequency with which the counselor's help was sought. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of information on students' perceptions of counseling and their willingness to seek help.

Previous studies indicate that students perceive personal-social problems as much less appropriate to discuss with counselors than do counselors. The present study with 421 female college students examined the efficacy of specially devised information in altering Ss' perceptions of the appropriateness of personal problems for counseling and their willingness to seek counseling for such problems. Ss who received both written and orally presented information showed an increment on these dependent variables, while Ss receiving only written information did not. It is concluded that written information may inform or remind students of the availability of counseling but, in itself, does not alter their impressions of the problems appropriate for counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of level of acculturation and counseling style on Hispanic students' perceptions of counselor.

It was hypothesized that level of acculturation and counseling style would affect Hispanic students' perceptions of certain counselor attributes and willingness to see a counselor. Pretesting on an acculturation scale placed 94 Hispanic undergraduate college students in one of three types, Hispanic acculturated, bicultural, or Anglo acculturated. The participants viewed a counseling videotape of one of two White female counselors portraying either a directive or a nondirective counseling style and rated her on two scales. Results indicated that acculturation had a significant effect on ratings of trustworthiness and counselor understanding. Counseling style had a significant effect on the students' perception of counselor knowledge of psychology, counselor willingness to help, and on their own willingness to see a counselor. Sex of the participants had a significant effect on perceptions of counselor attractiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison information and judgments about depression and seeking counseling.

Examined the effects of social comparison information, and the interaction of this information with symptom severity and sex, on 40 male and 40 female undergraduates' evaluations of depression symptoms and their willingness to seek counseling. Ss were administered the Depression Adjective Checklist—Form E (DACL—E) and the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Help Scale, as well as ratings of willingness to seek counseling and manipulation checks. A significant main effect was found on DACL—E scores for social comparison information. Ss who received serious social comparison information reported the highest depression scores. In addition, a significant interaction was found between social comparison information and sex of S in DACL—E scores. A significant main effect was also found on Ss' ratings of willingness to seek counseling for social comparison information and sex of S. Ss were more willing to seek counseling help when the social comparison information was serious. Also, female Ss were more willing to seek counseling than were male Ss. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)