Assertiveness, territoriality, and personal space behavior as a function of group assertion training.

42 18-40 yr old females who requested services from a university counseling center were employed to examine changes in assertiveness, territoriality, and personal space as a function of group assertion training. Ss were assigned to either a treatment (assertion training) group or to a control (waiting list) group. The following outcomes were hypothesized: (a) Ss who participated in the assertion training treatment program would increase their assertive behavior significantly more than controls. (b) Treatment Ss would exhibit smaller personal space zones than would controls. (c) Treatment Ss would use more space on a drawing task than would controls. Data collected from a battery of measures, including the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, the College Self-Expression Scale, and the Assertive Behavior Situation Test, provided strong support for the 1st and 3rd hypothesis and partial support for the 2nd hypothesis. Implications of the findings for counseling and for the use of ethological constructs are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the decision to be assertive.

Examines the applicability of an expectancy/decision model to assertiveness in a nonclinical population of 111 college students. Assertiveness, defined as refusal to comply with an unreasonable request, has been researched extensively from the viewpoint of behavior theory, which prescribes anxiety reduction and skill acquisition for the training of assertive behaviors. However, little has been done to investigate the reasons why assertive behavior occurs in one situation and not in another. Results suggest that the Ss, irrespective of their scores on standard measures of assertiveness and of anxiety (Rathus Assertion Inventory and the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory Trait Scale), considered the consequences of being assertive when making a decision about how to behave. Moreover, it was found that the difference between Ss who chose an assertive response and those who did not lies in the formers' assessments of the probabilities that bad consequences will occur and good consequences will not rather than in their evaluations of how bad or how good those consequences would be. Results imply that training programs should take into account the participant's perceptions of the risks involved in being assertive and that the focus should be on changing these perceptions rather than on attempting to change his or her values or focusing solely on specific assertive behaviors. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multimethod assessment of rapists, child molesters, and three control groups on behavioral and psychological measures.

12 males in each of 5 groups (rapists, child molesters, non-sex-offender inmates, low socioeconomic status [SES] volunteers, and college students who were infrequent daters) were observed interacting with a female confederate in a naturalistic interaction and in role-play scenes. Ss also completed measures including the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, and Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Overall, heterosocial skill deficits were observed in child molesters and rapists in comparison with the control groups. Rapists displayed higher physiological indices of anxiety during role-play scenes that demanded assertive responses, and child molesters displayed a fear of negative evaluations. Child molesters were also characterized by highly stereotyped views of sex role behavior. Measures of hostility or impulsivity were not useful in distinguishing child molesters and rapists from the 3 control groups. Treatment and assessment implications for sex offenders are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertive behavior and perceived discomfort of alcoholics in assertion-required situations.

20 male alcoholics and a matched group of 20 nonalcoholic drinkers (mean ages 50.0 and 49.6 yrs, respectively) were assessed on self-report and behavioral tests of assertive behavior and discomfort. Although there were no group differences in assertive behavior, alcoholics reported more assertive discomfort on both tests. The difference on the behavioral test was due to responses in negative situations. Both groups were less assertive in negative situations and more assertive with familiar males than with familiar females. With unfamiliar persons, however, all Ss were more assertive with females. Findings suggest assertive training with alcoholics should focus on reducing psychological discomfort in assertion-required situations. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A principal components analysis of the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule.

Performed a principal components analysis of the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) to investigate the adequacy of this inventory as a global measure of assertiveness. The analysis (using 956 undergraduate Ss) indicated that the RAS does not provide a unidimensional index of assertiveness, but rather measures a number of factors including situation-specific assertive behavior, aggressiveness, and a more general assertiveness. The results are discussed in relation to the small number of items comprising the schedule and the rather limited repertoire of different behavioral situations sampled in the items. These problems make it difficult to adequately define the individual factors revealed by the principal components analysis. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Writing and revising persuasive documents: Cognitive demands.

In 2 experiments, 40 graduate and 60 undergraduate students wrote preliminary and final drafts of a persuasive document. In Exp I, the need for Ss to comply with mechanics (i.e., punctuation and spelling), to form complete sentences, and to sequence their ideas, respectively, were eliminated one at a time from preliminary-draft formats. The elimination of sentence-formation and sequence operations produced corresponding increments in persuasive argument production. In Exp II, Ss with average verbal ability (as assessed by the Scholastic Aptitude Test) benefited more from the elimination of these structure operations than did Ss with low verbal ability. When allowed to freely choose their typical preliminary-draft format, Ss with average verbal ability usually selected proposition-based formats (e.g., lists, outlines, and diagrams) that dispensed with the need for structure operations. Ss with average verbal ability also produced more sentences, more arguments per sentence, and fewer mechanical errors than did those with low verbal ability. In both experiments, comparatively few new arguments were constructed during revision. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Covert and overt rehearsal and homework practice in developing assertiveness.

Evaluated the effects of overt rehearsal and homework practice on covert modeling treatment of social skills. 79 18–73 yr old nonassertive clients received 1 of 4 variations of covert modeling that resulted from a 2?×?2 combination of overt rehearsal and homework practice. Ss who received overt rehearsal engaged in overt enactments (role playing) within the treatment sessions; Ss who received homework practice engaged in extra treatment activities to develop their social skills. A delayed-treatment control group was also included to serve as a no-treatment condition before Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of the 4 treatments. Findings indicate that treatments led to significant improvements on self-report inventories, global ratings, and behavioral measures of assertiveness (the Conflict Resolution Inventory and the Wolpe-Lazarus Assertiveness Questionnaire). Ss who engaged in homework practice and/or overt rehearsal of assertive behavior within the treatment sessions made consistently greater improvements at posttreatment and at an 8-mo follow-up than Ss who did not receive the procedures. Treatment effects extended to novel assessment situations and brought Ss to the level of 45 16–41 yr olds who regarded themselves as adept in social situations. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived contingency of skill and chance events: A developmental analysis.

60 kindergartners, 4th graders, and 8th graders and 32 college students took part in a game of chance and a game of skill. After each game, Ss predicted the winnings of other players who differed in certain attributes (e.g., IQ) and behavior (e.g., effort) that would influence only skill outcomes. On both chance and skill tasks, older Ss expected the variations in attributes and behavior to have less impact on task outcomes than did younger Ss. Older Ss were more adept at making predictions that reflected the contingency of skill and the noncontingency of chance. Kindergartners showed no ability to make the skill–chance distinction. Fourth graders were aware of the distinction at a gross qualitative level, but they were unaware of some of the most important logical implications of that distinction. Eighth graders and college students were aware of the skill–chance distinction and most of its logical implications, yet their predictions revealed a lingering belief that chance outcomes could be influenced slightly by variations in people's attributes and behavior. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive, assertive, and insight-oriented group therapies in the treatment of reactive depression in women.

33 nonpsychotic, nonsuicidal women (mean age 35.1 yrs) who scored between 15 and 31 on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and whose depression was situationally related were assigned to 6-wk cognitive, assertive, or insight-oriented group therapy. Ss were administered a standardized interview, BDI, Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, Personality Data Form, and 4 tape-recorded scenes requiring an assertive response before and after the groups and at a 2-mo follow-up. Results show all groups improved significantly in depression, rationality, and assertiveness. Assertive and insight groups improved significantly more in rationality regarding acceptance than the cognitive group. At follow-up, none of the assertive groups, 18% of the cognitive group, and 45% of the insight group had sought further treatment. Additionally, the assertive group was significantly more rational regarding frustrating events and self-worth. The assertive and insight groups made significantly more gains and were more assertive than the cognitive group. A 3 (change in depression) by 3 (treatment group) ANOVA showed high-depression-change and medium-depression-change Ss changed significantly more in assertiveness and rationally than low-depression change Ss. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generality of the interaction model of anxiety with respect to two social evaluation field studies.

Hypothesized that Ss high in social evaluation trait anxiety (TA) would experience significantly greater changes (i.e., between stress and nonstress conditions) in TA than Ss low in social evaluation TA. It was further predicted that for the noncongruent interpersonal, physical danger, ambiguous, and innocuous TA dimensions, TA changes experienced by Ss high and low in TA would not differ significantly. 26 high school students (Exp I) and 28 24–60 yr old middle management corporate executives (Exp II) were administered the S-R Inventory of General Trait Anxiousness, the Present Affect Reactions Questionnaire, and the Perception of Situations Rating form under stressful (examination situation [Exp I] and on-the-job situation oriented toward achievement and performance [Exp II]) and nonstressful conditions. While the predicted relationships between TA, state anxiety (SA), and situation stress were confirmed, results provide only moderate support for the interaction model of anxiety because Ss did not strongly endorse the initial assumption that the stressful situations would be perceived as primarily socially evaluative. The apparent discrepancy between situation perception and SA levels of Ss high and low in social evaluation TA is discussed in terms of differential responsiveness to trait-congruent situational elements within various TA groups. (French abstract) (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How unassertive women perceive emotional expressions.

Examined assertive and unassertive women's perception of others' emotional reactions. 96 undergraduate women completed the College Self-Expression Scale, an assertiveness inventory. Ss were presented with 12 requests which they imagined refusing. Ss were then shown, in sequence, 3 different photographs depicting the other person's response. Ss identified and indicated the intensity of the particular emotion they saw in the photograph. Results indicate that when viewing a smiling expression, low assertive Ss saw significantly more negative emotion and less positive emotion than high assertive Ss. High and low assertive Ss did not differ in the emotion they perceived in the slightly distressed or very distressed expressions. Results suggest an interpersonal focus in understanding unassertive behavior. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group versus individual assertion training.

16 nonassertive community women (mean age 39.1 yrs) participated in a study that compared the effectiveness of group assertion therapy with the effectiveness of individual assertion therapy. A clinical treatment procedure that included behavioral rehearsal, modeling, and coaching was used in both treatment modalities. Prior research using almost identical treatment procedures, screening requirements, and assessment batteries demonstrated the greater effectiveness of this therapeutic procedure as compared with a no-treatment control condition, in which Ss did not change over time. Results of this study indicate that there are no significant differences between group versus individual assertion training. Pre-, post-, and 3-mo follow-up measures (e.g., Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, S–R Inventory of General Trait Anxiousness) demonstrated that both treatments were effective in increasing assertive behavior skills and in reducing hostility and anger. When compared with the no-treatment control condition of an earlier comparable study, the 2 treatment conditions of the present study are shown to be superior. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational determinants of assertive behaviors.

Administered 32 assertive situations that varied in social-interpersonal context to 60 male 21-67 yr old hospitalized psychiatric patients via role playing. Half of the role-played situations required the expression of negative (hostile) assertiveness, and the other half required positive (commendatory) assertive expression. Situational context was varied by having Ss respond to male and female interpersonal partners who were either familiar or unfamiliar to Ss. Responses were videotaped and rated on 5 measures of speech content and 7 measures of nonverbal behavior. Additionally, groups of high- and low-assertive patients were identified from the total sample using a behavioral measure of global assertiveness and a self-report instrument. Results indicate that interpersonal behavior in assertive situations varied as a function of social context. Further, high- and low-assertive Ss were differentiated on the basis of 9 of the 12 measures of interpersonal behavior. Support for a stimulus specific theory of assertive behaviors and implications for assertive training are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor and peer-led group assertive training on Black adolescent aggression.

48 8th–9th grade Black males, selected for their aggressive classroom behavior, were randomly assigned to professional or peer counselor assertive training groups, professional or peer counselor discussion groups, and a no-treatment control group. All Ss were administered a pretest and posttest battery measuring assertive skill level, anger level, a projective assessment of aggression, and classroom aggressive behavior. Results suggest that professional counselors and peer counselors are equally effective in teaching assertive skills and that Ss who learn assertive responses will exhibit significantly less aggressive behavior. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys with peer adjustment problems: Social cognitive processes.

30 4th-grade and 30 6th-grade males with positive (P) or negative (N) peer status were asked to generate alternative solutions to hypothetical problems, evaluate possible solutions, describe self-statements, and rate the likelihood of possible self-statements to investigate the hypothesis that maladjusted Ss (N peer status) would lack specific social cognitive skills. Hypothetical problems were presented in interviews that emphasized situations involving acts of aggression. Interviews were conducted in 2 parts, involving knowledge of interpersonal problem-solving strategies and attributional style assessment. Results indicate that N Ss generated fewer alternative solutions, proposed fewer assertive and mature solutions, generated more intense aggressive solutions, showed less adaptive planning, and evaluated physically aggressive responses more positively and positive responses more negatively than did P Ss. Data support the notion that boys with social adjustment problems are deficient in the cognitive problem-solving skill of generating multiple alternative solutions. Findings suggest that differences in knowledge and/or attitudes concerning normative social behavior may contribute to the more negative behavior patterns observed in socially maladjusted boys. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of ovariectomy on the reproductive behavior of female ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).

Studied the behavior of 12 adult male and 12 adult female ring doves during the breeding period. The stages of female mating responsiveness were defined by characteristic behavioral events (e.g., approaching, nest soliciting, nest crouching, and nest building). In Exp. I, 24 females had their left (functional) ovary completely or partially removed or received sham operations. Sinistrally ovariectomized Ss lost their characteristic behavior patterns in response to courting: Their behaviors were regressed to that of the nonresponsive stage, where sleeping, perching, and other self-directed activities are the dominant behavior patterns. The characteristic responsive behavior patterns were recovered in some Ss as the right rudimentary ovary regenerated. In Exp. II with 25 female Ss, a 2-stage bilateral ovariectomy entirely abolished any chance of behavioral recovery. Results verify the role of ovarian hormones in female reproductive behavior in ring doves. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonassertiveness of Asian Americans: An inaccurate assumption?

Tested the view that Asian Americans are nonassertive and the possibility that they display differential assertiveness depending on situational variables. To determine if race of the individual with whom they are interacting is an influencing variable on assertion in Asian Americans, 51 Chinese-American and 25 Caucasian undergraduate males were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: role playing a series of 13 situations requiring assertion with an Asian experimenter or role playing the same situations with a Caucasian experimenter. Ss also completed the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, Fear of Negative Evaluation Questionnaire, and Rathus Assertiveness Schedule. Results indicate that Chinese-Americans were as assertive as Caucasians on all behavioral measures and that the race of experimenter was not an important variable in the performance of Asians. Consistent with previous studies, significant differences on self-report measures were obtained. Chinese-Americans were more likely to report anxiety in social situations, greater apprehension in evaluative situations, and lower assertiveness than Caucasians. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts.

The accessibility of suppressed thoughts was compared with the accessibility of thoughts on which Ss were consciously trying to concentrate. In Exp 1, Ss made associations to word prompts as they tried to suppress thinking about a target word (e.g., house) or tried to concentrate on that word. Under the cognitive load imposed by time pressure, they gave the target word in response to target-related prompts (e.g., home) more often during suppression than during concentration. In Exp 2, reaction times (RTs) for naming colors of words were found to be greater under conditions of cognitive load when Ss were asked to suppress thinking of the word than under conditions of no cognitive load or when Ss were asked to concentrate on the word. The results support the idea that an automatic search for the suppression target increases the accessibility of the target during suppression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement of interpersonal orientation.

The construct of interpersonal orientation (IO) is proposed as useful for understanding behavior in certain social situations. High IOs are interested in and reactive to other people; low IOs are less interested and responsive to others and more concerned with economic features of relationships. A self-report measure of IO was constructed; questionnaire and interview data generally supported the hypothesized parameters of the construct, with females scoring higher than males and high scorers (regardless of sex) indicating greater interest in and responsiveness to interpersonal features of their environments. Two experiments were conducted to assess the utility of IO in social situations. In Exp I (82 Ss), a factorial combination of sex and IO eliminated a previously demonstrated sex difference in favor of an IO difference: High IOs expressed greater liking than did low IOs for a partner who had self-disclosed to them. In Exp II (56 Ss), males and low IOs whose performance was either superior or inferior to a partner allocated rewards in accordance with equity theory; females and high IOs seemed more concerned with equality than with equity. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)