Male and female counselor and client perceptions of four levels of counselor touch.

60 male and 60 female counselors (aged 20–63 yrs) and 60 male and 60 female clients (aged 19–65 yrs) from the outpatient mental health clinic of a military hospital each evaluated a videotaped vignette of a counselor–client interaction with 1 of 4 counselor touch conditions depicted: no touch, touch of client's hand, touch of client's shoulder, semi-embrace. Dependent measures were a counselor rating form and a personal attribute inventory. Three-way multivariate analyses of variance (treatment?×?S gender?×?S's client vs counselor status) yielded no significant interactions. However, significance was obtained for the main effects of treatment and S's client vs counselor status. Subsequent analyses revealed that the counselor in the semi-embrace condition was perceived as less trustworthy than those in any of the other conditions. Also, clients perceived the videotaped counselor as more expert, attractive, and trustworthy than did counselors. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client perceived need and counselor role on clients' behaviors.

Employed a multifactor 2 (high and low need) by 2 (expert and inexpert role) by 2 (interviewers) fixed effects design to evaluate the effects of S perceived need and interviewer role on an S's opinions and behaviors. 90 female undergraduates attended a 20-min counseling analog interview in which they discussed their problem-solving skills. During this time the interviewer attempted to alter Ss' ratings of their problem-solving skills as well as 2 extrainterview behaviors. Following the interview, Ss rated the interviewer on a counselor rating form, responded to 2 problem-solving inventories, and were given the opportunity to engage in 2 self-help activities outside of the interview. The results indicate that the roles were perceived as intended and resulted in the intended opinion changes. Perceived interviewer expertness did influence Ss to engage in certain self-help activities, but the scope of those behaviors was limited. Contrary to earlier postulations, differential S need did not affect interviewer's ability to influence Ss' opinions or behaviors. Additional research is needed to test the theoretical formula regarding counselor power, as well as to explore the range of effects of perceived counselor expertness. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor qualities: Impact of subjects' self-concepts, counselor gender, and counselor introductions.

Examined the extent to which a counselor quality (reputed expertise) and a client quality (self-concept) were interactive with counselor gender and with each other as determinants of Ss' perceptions of the counselor. 105 male undergraduates were split into high- or low-self-concept groups according to their scores on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and listened to an audiotape of a male or female counselor who was introduced as an expert counselor or a nonexpert counselor or who was given no introduction. Ss then used the Counselor Rating Form to rate the counselor. Consistent with previous research, the expertness manipulation affected ratings of the counselor, whereas counselor gender alone did not. No interaction between counselor gender and expertness introduction was obtained, although one interaction (for attractiveness) was obtained for S self-concept by expertness introduction. Three-way interactions were obtained for perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. These results suggest that although S self-concept alone does not determine perceptions of the counselor, it is one recipient characteristic that interacts with the counselor characteristics of gender and ascribed expertise. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancies for counselors as a function of counselor gender specification and subject sex.

20 male and 20 female undergraduates were randomly selected at each of 2 time periods for inclusion in each of 3 experimental groups: male counseling psychologist (CP), female CP, and gender-unspecified CP. Ss filled out a modified version of the Expectations About Counseling (EAC) questionnaire that included a reference to the sex of the CP for the appropriate groups. An additional sample of 92 Ss was enlisted to aid in a manipulation check; on completion of the EAC, they were queried as to whether the sex of the CP had been mentioned. Results indicate that specification of the counselor's gender had no significant effect on Ss' expectations, but that sex of S was a potent factor. Females expected stronger facilitative conditions, more personal involvement in counseling, and a more positive counseling outcome than did males. The importance of Ss' sex and interpersonal style and the CP's professional role in expectation-setting processes are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of gender on the counselor's preference for methods of influence.

Hypothesized that gender would be related to the counselor's preference for using legitimate, expert, and referent methods of influence. 32 male and 20 female practicing university counselors were asked to estimate the utility of responses reflecting each of the 3 methods of influence in facilitating behavioral change in either a male or a female depressed client. Preferences for the legitimate response varied according to S's gender, whereas preferences for the expert response varied according to the gender of both S and client. No significant differences were found in preferences for the referent response. Results are interpreted in terms of the effects that sex role stereotypes had on maximizing S power and minimizing client resistance. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An attributional approach to counselor attractiveness.

Two components of counselor attractiveness—perceived similarity and liking—were examined in a comparison of 2 theoretical approaches to attractiveness and influence in counseling. The referent power hypothesis links both similarity and liking to the counselor's ability to influence. An attributional approach specifies instances in which counselor dissimilarity may have more informational value than similarity and thus produce greater influence. 88 undergraduates viewed videotapes of 1 of 2 female counselors purportedly either similar or dissimilar to Ss and displaying either high or low liking in her nonverbal behavior. Effects of counselor agreement or disagreement with S's opinion were assessed on measures of S's subsequent opinion and confidence in that opinion. Results indicate that opinion change was a function of counselor disagreement, and confidence change was a function of counselor dissimilarity. The dissimilar counselor was as influential as the similar counselor but had a greater impact on Ss' confidence. Counselor nonverbal behavior produced differential perceptions but was unrelated to influence. Findings support the attributional approach over the reference power hypothesis. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Female counselor–client dyads: Effects of counselor age, client marital status, and intimacy level of presenting problem on perceptions of counselors.

Explored the impact of counselor age, level of intimacy of clients' presenting problems, and client marital status on perception of counselors and the counseling relationship with 48 married females (mean age 21.9 yrs) and 48 unmarried females (mean age 26.3 yrs). Ss viewed a series of 3 videotapes, which were counterbalanced for level of intimacy of client's presenting problems and depicted initial interviews between young female clients and either younger or older female counselors. After viewing each individual vignette, Ss completed a counselor rating form, a client satisfaction form, and manipulation checks for presenting problem intimacy and counselor age. Overall, differences in presenting problems and counselor age were perceived as intended. Ss' marital status was unrelated to any measures. Counselors were judged as most expert, attractive, and trustworthy when dealing with presenting problems that were least intimate. Ss anticipated greater satisfaction with younger rather than older counselors only for the least intimate presenting problem. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of self-disclosing versus self-involving counselor statements.

Studied 107 female undergraduates who listened to 1 of 2 audiotaped recordings of a counseling interview between an experienced male counselor and a female client. Half of the Ss heard a tape containing counselor self-disclosure (S-D) statements; the other half heard a tape containing counselor self-involving (S-I) statements. Ss rated the counselor's expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness (Counselor Rating Form) and generated written responses to each S-D or S-I counselor statement. The S-I counselor was rated as significantly more expert and trustworthy than was the S-D counselor. Further, Ss' responses to the S-D counselor statements contained significantly more questions about and references to the counselor, whereas responses to S-I counselor statements contained significantly more self-referents. Ss' responses to the S-I counselor were significantly more likely to be phrased in the present, rather than the past or future, tense. Implications for the practice of counseling and for further research on self-disclosure are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys and girls together—and alienated: On enacting stereotyped sex roles in mixed-sex dyads.

Determined how individual differences in sex role orientation (assessed by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) were related to behavior of 43 male and 43 female undergraduates during an initial, unstructured interaction in mixed-sex dyads. The design contrasted 4 different dyad types: (a) the male and female were stereotypically sex typed correspondent to their gender (male ST–female ST). (b) The male was stereotypically sex typed as masculine and the female as androgynous (male ST–female A). (c) The male was androgynous and the female was sex typed as feminine (male A–female ST). (d) Both were androgynous (male A–female A). Analyses of the Ss' behavior during the 5-min interaction period and self-report data collected afterward revealed significantly less interaction and interpersonal attraction in the male ST–female ST dyads than in the other dyad types. Data are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974) conception of sex role identification and M. Snyder's (1974) conception of self-monitoring. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expert and referent influence, physical attractiveness, and gender on perceptions of counselor attributes.

Investigated the predictions of social influence theory with respect to Ss' perceptions of counselors' professional and personal attributes and Ss' evaluations of the counselors. Expert and referent power bases and influence attempts were crossed with levels of counselor physical attractiveness together with S and counselor gender in a counseling analog. 64 male and 64 female undergraduates viewed 1 of 8 videotaped simulated counseling interviews and completed rating forms assessing their perceptions and evaluations. Analyses supported social influence theory in that (a) expert conditions produced higher ratings of professional attributes than did referent conditions, (b) referent conditions produced higher ratings of personal attributes than did expert conditions, (c) congruent conditions (power base and influence attempt) produced higher ratings than did incongruent conditions on all measures, and (d) physical attractiveness mediated the effects of congruence for personal but not for professional attributes. No gender differences were present. Implications for the social influence process are discussed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of self-disclosing versus self-involving counselor statements across counselor–client gender pairings.

60 male and 60 female undergraduates listened to 1 of 8 audiotaped recordings of a counseling interview between either an experienced male or female counselor and a male client, for male Ss, or a female client, for female Ss. One half of the male and female Ss heard a tape containing counselor self-disclosure statements; the other half heard a tape containing counselor self-involving statements. Ss rated counselors' expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness, and generated written responses to each self-disclosing or self-involving counselor statement. Across all counselor–client gender pairings, self-involving counselors were rated as significantly more expert, attractive, and trustworthy than were self-disclosing counselors. Further, client responses to self-disclosing counselor statements contained significantly more questions about the counselors, were significantly longer responses, and were significantly more likely to be phrased in the past or future rather than in the present tense. Finally, client responses to the self-involving counselor statements contained significantly more client self-referents. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interviewer use of positive and negative self-disclosure and interviewer-subject sex pairing.

Investigated the effect of interviewer use of positive or negative self-disclosure and interviewer-S sex pairing on Ss' perceptions of the interviewer and of their own behavior. 36 male and 36 female undergraduates served as Ss; 3 male and 3 female doctoral students served as interviewers. Results indicate that (a) interviewers who disclosed negative information about themselves were perceived as significantly more empathic, warm, and credible than interviewers who disclosed positive information about themselves; (b) Ss interviewed by a negatively disclosing interviewer perceived that they procrastinated significantly less after the interview than before, while the opposite was true for subjects in the positive disclosure condition; (c) Ss in both disclosure conditions were significantly more confident of their procrastination estimates after the interview; and (d) none of the effects due to interviewer-S sex pairing reached significance. The need for further studies investigating interviewer self-disclosure as both a means of generating a facilitative atmosphere and a counseling intervention to effect perceived or behavioral client change is noted. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black students' counselor preference and attitudes toward counseling center use.

Surveyed 42 female and 33 male Black college students to determine factors related to Black student use of the university counseling center. Counselor preference, sex of client, sex of counselor, race of counselor, and type of problem were analyzed as to their effects on counseling center use. Results indicate that Black clients preferred Black counselors and that the likelihood of taking a problem to the counseling center increased as counselor preference increased. Also, the likelihood of taking a problem to the center was significantly greater if the counselor to be seen was Black rather than White. Client and counselor sex, and type of problem (personal or educational-vocational) had no effect on potential counseling center usage. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of paradoxical and nonparadoxical self-disclosure on counselor social influence.

Examined the effects of counselor self-disclosure and paradoxical homework directives on Ss' ratings on a 5-item homework directive rating scale and on perceived counselor social influence. It was hypothesized that counselor self-disclosure would reduce potentially negative perceptions of paradoxical directives. 49 female and 40 male undergraduates experiencing problems with test anxiety rated 1 of 4 videotapes of actual counselor–client interaction when a female counselor interviewed a client reporting problems with test anxiety. Results show that paradoxical homework directives were perceived as more tricky, manipulative, and confusing than were nonparadoxical directives but that these perceptions did not affect Ss' perceptions of the counselor's willingness or ability to help or increase feelings of anger toward the counselor. Results also indicate that paradoxical directives were not damaging to perceptions of counselor social influence and the counselor self-disclosure did not affect perceptions of counselor social influence. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illusion of control for self and others in depressed and nondepressed college students.

108 depressed or nondepressed undergraduates, as assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory and Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, judged either how much control they themselves had or how much control a male or female confederate (C) had over a noncontingent, but positive, outcome. Replicating past findings (i.e., L. B. Alloy et al, 1981) on depression and judgments of control, depressed Ss judged relatively accurately that they exerted little control over the experimental outcome, whereas nondepressed Ss overestimated their personal control. Ss' judgments of the C's control were a function of the S's mood state and sex as well as of the C's sex. With 1 exception (depressed males in the male other condition), depressed Ss tended to overestimate the C's (male or female) control over the noncontingent outcome. Nondepressed females also judged that the C (male or female) exerted a high degree of control, thus succumbing to the illusion of control both for themselves and others. Nondepressed males tended to judge more accurately that the C (particularly the female C) exerted little control and thus succumbed to the illusion of control for themselves but not for others. Findings imply that an adequate understanding of depressive and nondepressive cognition requires an interpersonal as well as an intrapsychic perspective. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of a sex-fair counselor and her client.

Investigated the effects of sex-fair counseling on 18 male and 21 female undergraduates' perceptions of (a) a female counselor, (b) a same-sex client, and (c) their own attitudes. The experimental design was a 2?×?2 factorial in which a female or a male client discussed traditional or nontraditional career plans with the counselor. The only significant findings regarding perceptions of the counselor were that women anticipated that they would feel more comfortable with the counselor who facilitated nontraditional career exploration than did men. Women tended to evaluate traditional and nontraditional clients similarly, whereas men evaluated the traditional client more favorably regarding academic achievement. Ss' own attitudes regarding occupational choice did not differ significantly between the 2 types of counseling, although the nontraditional condition did seem to result in greater flexibility among women. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)