Matching perceptual predicates: Effect on perceived empathy in a counseling analogue.

Investigated J. Grinder and R. Bandler's (1976) assertion that responding with perceptual predicates similar to those used by a speaker results in increased perceived empathy. In an analog counseling interview with 63 female undergraduates, counselors tracked the use of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic perceptual predicates and then responded with either similar or dissimilar predicates of their own. Ss completed a revised version of the Empathy scale of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory and an interviewer experience scale constructed by the author. A significant difference was found between treatments in the expected direction, with Ss in the matched predicates condition rating their counselors higher on perceived empathy. The procedure of continually tracking and matching perceptual predicates is contrasted with the method of identifying and matching a primary representational system used by other researchers, and questions are raised about the assumptions regarding representational systems in neurolinguistic programming. It is concluded that the tracking procedure was preferable for empirical and theoretical reasons. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Representational systems and eye movements in an interview.

Tested the assumption that the perceived relationship between counselor (interviewer) and client (participant) is enhanced using the model postulated by J. Grinder et al (1977). 72 17–27 yr olds participated in 1 of 2 interview conditions: (a) a congruent interview in which interviewers responded with "perceptual predicates" that matched Ss' representational system as indicated by eye movement and (b) an incongruent interview in which interviewers mismatched Ss' representational system. Empathy, ease, anxiety, and hostility were measured by 3 self-report instruments: Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-Empathic Understanding Scale, Ease of Communication Inventory, and Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. Seven hypotheses used to test the main effects and interactions of sex of interviewer, sex of participant, and condition revealed questionable support for the notion of increased rapport when interviewers responded congruently to representational systems indicated by Ss' eye movements. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neurolinguistic programming: The impact of imagery tasks on sensory predicate usage.

Investigated the impact of varied imaging tasks on the use of sensory predicates by 45 right-handed White females (aged 18–40 yrs). Ss completed a background questionnaire and 2 imagery questionnaires before completing pleasant and unpleasant imagery tasks in visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic sensory modalities. Four additional tasks included having Ss report a pleasant and an unpleasant image using 5 sensory modalities, and earliest memory, and an accomplishment experience. Randomly selected images were coded by therapists. Previous studies of the neurolinguistic programming have considered sensory predicates as a trait measure, indicative of a person's preferred or primary representation system. Results of the present study demonstrate that Ss were able to vary their type of sensory predicates according to the task demands or situational context. Thus, most Ss were auditory types during auditory imaging tasks and kinaesthetic types during kinaesthetic imaging tasks. Findings are incongruent with R. Bandler and J. Grinder's (1979) conceptualization of representational systems, but they support A. Hammer's (see record 1983-26385-001) recommendations for therapists to continuously track and match clients' sensory predicates. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming.

Tested R. Bandler and J. Grinder's (1975, 1979) neurolinguistic programming theory that eye movement direction and spoken predicates are indicative of sensory modality of imagery. 39 undergraduates reported on modality, sequence, and vividness of images to questions that evoked either no images or visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images. Eye movement direction and spoken predicates were matched with sensory modality of the questions. Ss reported images in the 3 modes, but no relation between imagery and eye movements or predicates was found. The visual modality was dominant. Visual images were most vivid and often reported. Most Ss rated themselves as visual, and most spoken predicates were visual. Data are discussed in the context of an ever-growing literature that does not support Bandler and Grinder's model and in the context of the difficulties in interpreting the model itself. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived trustworthiness of knowledge sources: The moderating impact of relationship length.

Prior meta-analytic evidence has indicated no association between relationship length and perceived trustworthiness. Viewing trustors as information processors, the authors propose a model in which relationship length, although having no direct effect on perceived trustworthiness, moderates the association between perceived trustworthiness and the basis on which people decide to trust each other. Specifically, as trustors learn about others, they base their trust on different kinds of information (demographic similarity, trustworthy behavior, and shared perspective). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses of a field survey of supervisors and subordinates from 3 companies (N = 88) provide evidence consistent with this prediction: Perceived trustworthiness is associated with demographic similarity in newer relationships, with trustworthy behavior in relationships that are neither brand new nor old but in-between, and with shared perspective in older relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shared perceptual basis of emotional expressions and trustworthiness impressions from faces.

Using a dynamic stimuli paradigm, in which faces expressed either happiness or anger, the authors tested the hypothesis that perceptions of trustworthiness are related to these expressions. Although the same emotional intensity was added to both trustworthy and untrustworthy faces, trustworthy faces who expressed happiness were perceived as happier than untrustworthy faces, and untrustworthy faces who expressed anger were perceived as angrier than trustworthy faces. The authors also manipulated changes in face trustworthiness simultaneously with the change in expression. Whereas transitions in face trustworthiness in the direction of the expressed emotion (e.g., high-to-low trustworthiness and anger) increased the perceived intensity of the emotion, transitions in the opposite direction decreased this intensity. For example, changes from high to low trustworthiness increased the intensity of perceived anger but decreased the intensity of perceived happiness. These findings support the hypothesis that changes along the trustworthiness dimension correspond to subtle changes resembling expressions signaling whether the person displaying the emotion should be avoided or approached. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system.

Reviews 15 studies investigating the use of the preferred representational system (PRS) in neurolinguistic programming (NLP) and summarizes the data collected. Aspects of design, methodology, population, and dependent measures are evaluated, with comments on the outcomes obtained. Results suggest that there is little supportive evidence for the use of the PRS in NLP in these 15 studies, with much data to the contrary. Questions of accountability are raised, and suggestions for future research are offered. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Salient attributes of two types of helpers: Friends and mental health professionals.

Asked 211 undergraduates to rate the importance of expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness for a friend and a mental health professional from whom they might seek help. Three levels of perceived attributes and 2 levels of type of helper were manipulated. Results indicate the salient attributes of a professional were perceived expertness and trustworthiness, whereas the salient attributes of a friend were perceived attractiveness and trustworthiness. The findings are discussed in terms of help-seeking behavior and the perceived credibility of helpers. It is suggested that the perceived credibility of helpers may be dependent upon the perception of trustworthiness in conjunction with the perception of either expertness or attractiveness. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When do we need procedural fairness? The role of trust in authority.

On the basis of fairness heuristic theory, the authors argue that when information about whether an authority can be trusted is not available, people will resolve the question of how they should interpret the decisions of the authority by relying on perceived procedural fairness. As a consequence, people who do not have information about authority's trustworthiness react more positively toward the outcomes of authority's decisions if the authority is using fair as opposed to unfair procedures. However, when people know that the authority either can or cannot be trusted, they are less in need of procedural fairness information, yielding less strong effects of procedural fairness on people's reactions. The findings of 2 experiments support the authors' line of reasoning. It is concluded that people especially need procedural fairness when information about an authority's trustworthiness is lacking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

If you are able to control yourself, I will trust you: The role of perceived self-control in interpersonal trust.

The present research tested the hypothesis that perception of others' self-control is an indicator of their trustworthiness. The authors investigated whether, in interactions between strangers as well as in established relationships, people detect another person's self-control, and whether this perception of self-control, in turn, affects trust. Results of 4 experiments supported these hypotheses. The first 2 experiments revealed that participants detected another person's trait of self-control. Experiments 3 and 4 revealed that participants also detected the temporary depletion of another person's self-control. Confirming the authors' predictions, perceived trait and state self-control, in turn, influenced people's judgment of the other person's trustworthiness. In line with previous research, these findings support the positive value of self-control for relationships and highlight the role of perceived self-control for the development of a fundamental relationship factor: trust. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voice in political decision-making: The effect of group voice on perceived trustworthiness of decision makers and subsequent acceptance of decisions.

The implementation of carbon dioxide capture and storage technology (CCS) is considered an important climate change mitigation strategy, but the viability of this technology will depend on public acceptance of CCS policy decisions. The results of three experiments with students as participants show that whether or not interest groups receive an opportunity to express their opinions in the decision-making process (i.e., group voice) affects acceptance of CCS policy decisions, with inferred trustworthiness of the decision maker mediating this effect. Decision-making procedures providing different interest groups with equal opportunities to voice their opinions instigate more trust in the decision maker and, in turn, lead to greater willingness to accept decisions compared to no-voice procedures (i.e., unilateral decision-making—Study 1) and unequal group-voice procedures (i.e., when one type of interest group receives voice, but another type of interest group does not—Study 2). Study 3 further shows that an individual's own level of knowledge about CCS moderates the desire for an opportunity for members of the general public to voice opinions in the decision-making process, inferred trustworthiness of decision makers, and policy acceptance. These results imply that people care about voice in decision-making even when they are not directly personally involved in the decision-making process. We conclude that people tend to use procedural information when deciding to accept or oppose policy decisions on political complex issues; hence, it is important that policymakers use fair group-voice procedures and that they communicate to the public how they arrive at their decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Representational momentum is not (totally) impervious to error feedback.

The influence of feedback on representational momentum for the final location of a moving target was examined in 3 experiments. The presence of binary feedback (correct, error) during practise trials or during larger blocks of experimental trials did not reduce representational momentum, nor did the presence of more informative feedback specifying the direction of error (error—in front of, error—behind) during larger blocks of experimental trials reduce representational momentum. Effects on representational momentum of whether feedback was consistently provided were inconsistent. Even though feedback did not reduce representational momentum per se, feedback did influence the probability of a same response for different probe positions. Implications of the data for R. A. Finke and J. J. Freyd's (1985; J. J. Freyd, 1987) claim that representational momentum is impervious to error feedback, and possible roles of perceptual learning in representational momentum, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of metaphors and cognitive complexity on perceived counselor characteristics.

Compared the effects of 3 types of counselor-offered metaphors, varying in levels of complexity, to facilitative responses on tests of perceived empathy, regard, expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. Cognitive complexity was measured with the Paragraph Completion Method, the Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale, and the Intolerance of Trait Inconsistency Scale. Empathy and level of regard were assessed by the Barrett-Leonard Relationship Inventory; perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness were measured by the Counselor Rating Form—Short Version. 80 undergraduates, crossed on levels of cognitive complexity, were assigned to 1 of 4 audiotaped treatment conditions: complex metaphor (CM), narrative analogy (NA), cliché (CL), and Level 3 facilitative response (L3). Results indicate that NA and L3 each produced more positive client ratings of empathy, regard, and expertness than CL. Cognitive complexity did not affect client ratings except for CM conditions. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ecological theory of orientation and the vestibular system.

In this article we provide evidence against a fundamental assumption of traditional theories of orientation—that gravitoinertial force is perceived. We argue that orientation is based on information that is available in patterns of motion of the organism. We further argue that perception and control of orientation depend not only on information about an organism's motions relative to the local force environment but also on information about the surface of support and about the compensatory actions of the organism. We describe these kinds of information and discuss their availability to, and across, different perceptual systems. The use of this information for the control of orientation is emphasized. We conclude with recommendations for research based on the new approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial and attitudinal factors affecting the perceptions of counselors by Black adolescents.

Presented to 247 Black male and female high school students racial and attitudinal information about a hypothetical male or female counselor and asked them to express their perceptions of the counselor. Attitudinal information about a counselor had a stronger effect than racial information on Ss' perception of the counselor: Counselors portrayed as attitudinally similar were rated significantly higher in attractiveness, trustworthiness, expertness, and social attraction than those portrayed as attitudinally dissimilar. Racial information also influenced perceived attractiveness: White counselors were rated higher than Black ones in attractiveness, although there was no difference in ratings of trustworthiness or expertise. White female counselors were perceived as more expert than their Black female counterparts, whereas the ratings of male counselors were not influenced by the racial variable. Implications for counselor–client relationships and the development of mental health services for minority populations are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is the face a window to the soul? Investigation of the accuracy of intuitive judgments of the trustworthiness of human faces.

Although trustworthiness judgments based on a stranger's face occur rapidly (Willis & Todorov, 2006), their accuracy is unknown. We examined the accuracy of trustworthiness judgments of the faces of 2 groups differing in trustworthiness (Nobel Peace Prize recipients/humanitarians vs. America's Most Wanted criminals). Participants viewed 34 faces each for 100 ms or 30 s and rated their trustworthiness. Subsequently, participants were informed about the nature of the 2 groups and estimated group membership for each face. Judgments formed with extremely brief exposure were similar in accuracy and confidence to those formed after a long exposure. However, initial judgments of untrustworthy (criminals') faces were less accurate (M=48.8%) than were those of trustworthy faces (M=62.7%). Judgment accuracy was above chance for trustworthy targets only at Time 1 and slightly above chance for both target types at Time 2. Participants relied on perceived kindness and aggressiveness to inform their rapidly formed intuitive decisions. Thus, intuition plays a minor facilitative role in reading faces. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The savant syndrome: intellectual impairment and exceptional skill

Occasionally, people with developmental disability display skills at a level inconsistent with their general intellectual functioning, so-called "savant" behavior. Studies of savant behavior are reviewed to determine their relevance to notions about the importance of general intellective functions in the development of exceptional skill. It is concluded that (a) the skill exhibited by savants shares many characteristics with that in people without disability, (b) the skill is usually accompanied by normative levels of performance on at least some subtests of standardized measures of cognitive achievement, and (c) it is unclear whether savants have distinctive cognitive strengths or motivational dispositions, though their relative prevalence among people with certain kinds of disability suggests predisposing constraints. The author proposes that these skills typically reflect highly elaborated preconceptual representational systems.     

Perceived spatial organization of cutaneous patterns on surfaces of the human body in various positions.

The perceived spatial organization of cutaneous patterns was examined in three experiments. People identified letters or numbers traced on surfaces of their body when the relative spatial orientations and positions of the body surfaces and of the stimuli were varied. Stimuli on the front or back of the head were perceived with respect to a frame of reference positioned behind those surfaces, independent of the surfaces' position and orientation. This independence may relate to the way in which the sensory apparatus on the front of the head is used in planning action. Stimuli on other surfaces of the head and body were perceived in relation to the position and orientation of the surface with respect to the whole body or trunk (most of which was usually upright). Stimuli on all transverse/horizontal surfaces were perceived with respect to frames of reference associated with the head/upper chest area. These frames were also used for stimuli on frontoparallel surfaces in front of the upper body. These observations may result from the use of "central" frames of reference that are independent of the head and are associated with the upper body. Stimuli on surfaces in other positions and orientations (with two exceptions) were perceived "externally"—that is, in frames of reference directly facing the stimulated surface. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Revisiting the past and back to the future: Memory systems and the linguistic representation of social events.

Five studies were conducted to investigate the relationship between how people communicate about social events and how representations of these events are stored in memory. It was hypothesized that more distant events in memory would be described with more abstract linguistic predicates, and recent events with more concrete language. The 1st study supported this hypothesis. The 2nd and 3rd experiments demonstrated that abstract predicates used as prompts elicit memories that are significantly more removed in time than concrete predicates. Two final experiments showed that these outcomes are not merely a function of the type of semantic cue but an interaction between memory and preferential predicate use. The findings illustrate a link between memory and communicative behavior of a type that has not been previously studied. The results are discussed in terms of a recent, well-supported model of 2 separate fast-learning and slow-learning memory systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The concept of auditory stimulus representation in cognitive neuroscience.

The sequence of neurophysiological processes elicited in the auditory system by a sound is analyzed in search of the stage at which the processes carrying sensory information cross the borderline beyond which they directly underlie sound perception. Neurophysiological data suggest that this transition occurs when the sensory input is mapped onto the physiological basis of sensory memory in the auditory cortex. At this point, the sensory information carried by the stimulus-elicited process corresponds, for the first time, to that contained by the actual sound percept. Before this stage, the sensory stimulus code is fragmentary, lacks the time dimension, cannot enter conscious perception, and is not accessible to top-down processes (voluntary mental operations). On these grounds, 2 distinct stages of auditory sensory processing, prerepresentational and representational, can be distinguished. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)