Effects of self-control training on study activity and academic performance: An analysis of self-monitoring, self-reward, and systematic-planning components.

Examined the relative efficacy of training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning as aids to self-control. 96 university students who, prior to treatment, did not differ on measures of scholastic achievement or study habits, were assigned to 6 groups, including a control group that received no treatment. Ss in the 5 treatment groups received training in a standard study method (SQ3R) and received different degrees of training in the components of self-control. Dependent measures included time spent studying, number of assigned study tasks completed, and change from pretreatment to posttreatment on quiz scores, GPA, and a standard measure (Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes) of study habits. Results indicate that neither training in self-monitoring alone nor self-monitoring plus self-reward techniques yielded significantly better performance than training in study methods alone. The group that received training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning strategies significantly outperformed other groups on nearly all measures. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modification of obsessional ruminations: A comparative study.

Conducted an analog study to examine the relative efficacy of 3 treatment strategies in the modification of obsessional thoughts. Of 172 volunteers, 51 Ss were selected by criterion scores on the Leyton Obsessional Inventory, IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire, target person ratings, and willingness to participate. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatment groups: (a) systematic desensitization (SD) and covert sensitization (CS); (b) SD and CS control; (c) SD control and CS; (d) SD control and CS control; and (e) waiting list contol. The effects of treatment were evaluated immediately and 5 wks following treatment on 13 dependent measures (e.g., frequency of ruminations, obsessional producing, and neutral stopping). Depending on the criterion of therapeutic success the combined use of CS and SD was most effective in reducing both anxiety and obsessive ruminations. (French summary) (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Focusing on the exterior and the interior: Two investigations of the initiation of personal relationships.

Tested the hypothesis that the construct of self-monitoring would identify individuals who characteristically adopt distinctly different orientations when initiating dating relationships. In each of 2 studies, low and high self-monitoring men chose a female partner for a date. In Study 1, attentional differences in the initial information-seeking stage of relationship initiation in an open-field setting were examined with 19 high- and 20 low-scoring Ss on a self-monitoring scale. In Study 2, actual choices of dating partners were examined where one type of desirable attribute in a partner had to be sacrificed in order to obtain another type of desirable attribute. 16 high- and 16 low-scoring Ss on a self-monitoring scale participated. Behavioral and self-report evidence revealed that in both the initial information-gathering stage and the actual choice of whom to date, low self-monitoring Ss paid a greater amount of attention to and placed greater weight on information about interior personal attributes than did high self-monitoring Ss; by contrast, high self-monitoring Ss paid more attention to and put greater weight on exterior physical appearance than did low self-monitoring Ss. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Change mechanisms in EMG biofeedback training: Cognitive changes underlying improvements in tension headache.

43 college students suffering from recurrent tension headache were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 EMG biofeedback training conditions. Although all Ss were led to believe they were learning to decrease frontal EMG activity, actual feedback was contingent on decreased EMG activity for half of the Ss and increased EMG activity for the other half. Within these 2 groups, Ss also viewed bogus video displays designed to convince them they were achieving large (high success) or small (moderate success) reductions in EMG activity. Results show that regardless of actual changes in EMG activity, Ss receiving high-success feedback had substantially greater improvement in headache activity (53%) than Ss receiving moderate success feedback (26%). Performance feedback was also related to score changes in locus of control and self-efficacy measures administered pre- and posttreatment. Changes in these 2 cognitive variables during biofeedback training were correlated with reductions in headache activity following treatment, while changes in EMG activity exhibited during training were uncorrelated with outcome. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thinking about ourselves and others: Self-monitoring and social knowledge.

124 undergraduates were administered the Self-Monitoring Scale and asked to respond to personality traits for themselves or another person. Ss with high self-monitoring scores were particularly skilled at constructing informative images of individuals who were prototypic examples of each of a variety of trait domains; low self-monitoring Ss were particularly skilled at constructing informative images of their characteristic selves in each trait domain. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive versus negative self-monitoring in the self-control of smoking.

Compared smoking treatment programs using negative (recording number of cigarettes smoked) vs positive (recording number of urges resisted) self-monitoring. Nine Ss each, mean age 36.7 yrs, participated in 1 of 2 similar broad-spectrum treatment programs, within which they either used positive or negative self-monitoring. Over treatment, Ss in both self-monitoring groups demonstrated similarly significant reductions in smoking frequency as compared to the control group. These findings were generally maintained at follow-up. It is suggested that clinical findings question the accuracy of the "positive" and "negative" labels used to designate the 2 self-monitoring modes. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of three psychological treatments and self-monitoring on the reduction of Type A behavior.

31 Type A (coronary prone) individuals received either cognitive–behavioral treatment, values-clarification treatment in combination with anxiety management training (AMT), or AMT alone. Ss were also blocked on the variable of self-monitoring, which is the extent to which one plans and enacts social behavior by using situational cues. Reduction in Type A behavior was achieved by all Ss, with none of the treatment groups producing clearly superior reductions. Reduction of anxiety was significantly effected by treatment condition, self-monitoring, and the interaction of these 2 variables. Implications for treatment of the Type A behavior pattern as well as the possible effects of self-monitoring on response to more general cognitive–behavioral techniques are discussed. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative efficacy of self-reward, self-punishment, and self-monitoring techniques for weight loss.

Randomly assigned 48 female and 5 male obese adults to 5 groups: (a) self-reward, (b) self-punishment, (c) self-reward and self-punishment, (d) self-monitoring, and (e) information control. All Ss were given information on effective stimulus control techniques for weight loss. Self-monitoring Ss were asked to weigh in twice per week for 4 wks and to record their daily weight and eating habits. Self-reward and self-punishment Ss, in addition to receiving self-monitoring instructions, were asked to award or fine themselves a portion of their deposit contingent on changes in their weight and eating habits. After 4 wks of treatment, self-reward Ss lost significantly more weight than either self-monitoring or control Ss. At a 4-mo follow-up, Ss who had received self-reward instructions continued to show greater improvement than either the self-punishment or control Ss. Findings provide a preliminary indication that self-reward strategies are superior to self-punitive and self-recording strategies in the modification of at least some habit patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ambulatory computer-assisted therapy for obesity: A new frontier for behavior therapy.

Implemented a behavioral treatment program for obesity and tested an interactive microcomputer system small enough to be carried by Ss throughout their normal daily routines. Treatment effects observed in 6 30–50 yr old females (at least 35% overweight) who received this experimental treatment were compared with those observed in 6 matched female controls (also at least 35% overweight) who received a similar treatment program implemented without computer assistance. The self-monitoring, goal-setting, and feedback treatment packages were computer-assisted or involved paper and pencil. Mean weight loss after the 8 postbaseline study weeks was 8.1 lb for the experimental Ss compared with 3.3 lb for the control Ss. Mean weight loss 8 mo posttreatment was 17.7 lb for the experimental Ss compared with 2.3 lb for the control Ss. It is concluded that ambulatory computer-assisted therapy provides important new opportunities for conducting behavior therapy and research in real-life settings. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A controlled evaluation of paraspinal EMG biofeedback in the treatment of chronic low back pain.

66 chronic low back pain sufferers (aged 20–65 yrs) were randomly divided into 3 equal groups. Ss completed a psychological test battery that included the Beck Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; pain monitoring measures, including the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ); and measurement of paraspinal electromyogram (EMG). One group then received paraspinal EMG biofeedback, 1 group received placebo treatment, and the 3rd group received no intervention. All Ss were reassessed immediately after treatment and at 3-mo follow-up. Results show that all groups showed significant reductions in pain, anxiety, depression, and paraspinal EMG following treatment and at follow-up, but there were no differences between groups. A regression analysis failed to identify Ss' characteristics that predicted positive outcome in the biofeedback group. However, high scores on the Evaluative scale of the MPQ and high hypnotizability were significant predictors of positive outcome for the placebo group. It is concluded that paraspinal EMG biofeedback is not a specific treatment for chronic low back pain in a nonhospitalized population. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of indefinite pretrial incarceration on the anxiety level of an urban jail population

This study investigated the effect of indefinite incarceration on the anxiety levels of males (N = 60) held in a large metropolitan county jail. The IPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire (Self Analysis Form) was administered to 60 male Ss (18 to 26 years of age) at intervals of 1 weeks and 8 weeks after incarceration. An analysis of variance, one-way with repeated measures, on the matching IPAT Anxiety Scale scores revealed a highly significant increase in anxiety (p less than .001) from 1 week to 8 weeks. A Newman-Keuls posttest comparison also indicated that anxiety levels rose significantly (p less than .001). The results suggested that indefinite pretrail incarceration can increase anxiety to a level of psychological morbidity. The possible effect of this finding upon the guarantee of a right to speedy trial was discussed.     

Self-monitoring and dating relationships.

Four investigations, with 479 university students, examined the involvement of self-monitoring propensities in dating relationships. Studies 1 and 2 examined willingness to change dating partners and form close, intimate dating relationships with other partners. Only Ss high in self-monitoring, as measured by the Self-Monitoring Scale, were willing to terminate current relationships in favor of alternative partners. In Study 3, for those involved in multiple dating relationships, high self-monitoring Ss reported having dated a greater number of partners in the preceding year than low self-monitoring Ss; for those in steady, exclusive dating relationships, low self-monitoring Ss reported having dated their current partner for considerably longer than high self-monitoring individuals. Study 4 examined growth of intimacy in dating relationships. The link between length of relationship and level of intimacy was more pronounced for low than high self-monitoring Ss. Findings suggest that high self-monitoring individuals adopt an "uncommitted" and low self-monitoring individuals a "committed" orientation toward dating relationships. Implications for understanding the evolution of intimate relationships, including marital ones, are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maintaining behavior change: An investigation of three maintenance strategies and the relationship of self-attribution to the long-term reduction of cigarette smoking.

After receiving an identical, nonaversive treatment package, 42 Ss (respondents to a newspaper ad; mean age 37.68) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 maintenance strategies: modeling, participant observing, or a self-monitoring control. These Ss showed a mean smoking rate of 46% of baseline at 1 yr and no significant relapse between 6 mo and 1 yr. Significant group differences and correlations with attribution and other questionnaire measures were found. A 2nd sample of 32 treated Ss, who observed the original Ss during their maintenance strategy sessions, achieved highly similar results on correlational, smoking, and abstinence rate measures, providing some support for the replicability of the results. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of continuous and intermittent self-monitoring on academic behavior.

Conducted a project with 27 undergraduate Ss dealing with review preparation for the general aptitude portions of the Graduate Record Examination. A linear teaching machine programed with quantitative and verbal problems was employed. The Ss were randomly assigned to 4 conditions: (a) continuous self-monitoring, (b) intermittent self-monitoring, (c) performance feedback, and (d) control. Self-monitoring Ss were instructed to record their progress by pressing a counter on either a continuous or intermittent schedule following correct answers. Performance-feedback Ss received information on the accuracy of their responding but were not given the opportunity to self-monitor. Control Ss received neither self-monitoring instructions nor performance feedback. Results show that self-monitoring Ss remained for significantly longer review sessions and that this effect was more pronounced under the continuous rather than the intermittent schedule. Self-monitoring Ss also displayed significantly better accuracy on quantitative problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-monitoring of attained subgoals in private study.

Compared 3 conditions of self-monitoring of private study for their effects on academic performance and intrinsic motivation. Ss were 240 1st-yr college students who were divided among high, moderate, and low achievers. Within each group, Ss were assigned to 1 of 4 study conditions: self-monitor subgoal condition, self-monitor time-on-study condition, self-monitor distal-goal condition, and control condition. In end-of-year examinations, Ss who self-monitored subgoals outperformed Ss who self-monitored either time or study or distal goals on the target course of the investigation. Furthermore, although Ss who self-monitored duration of study actually spent significantly longer on study, their examination performance was not significantly better than that of control Ss. Besides the beneficial effects on learning, subgoal self-monitoring enhanced intrinsic interest in the target course, as evidenced from Ss' ratings. Requiring Ss to turn in samples of study notes did not have an impact on examination performance; however, this requirement interacted with study condition in its effect on intrinsic interest. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

EMG biofeedback training of Type A and Type B behavior pattern subjects.

Assessed the relative efficacy of EMG biofeedback training to reduce tension levels in Ss characterized either by the presence of the coronary-prone behavior pattern (Type A) or by its absence (Type B). 55 college students, classified as Type A or B on the basis of Jenkins Activity Survey (Form T) scores, were randomly assigned to either a biofeedback or a control group. Ss met for 6 training sessions, then returned for a 7th session to perform without biofeedback a series of easy (4-digit recall) and difficult (7-digit recall) tasks. Biofeedback Ss attained a greater degree of relaxation during training than did control Ss, regardless of A/B status. Also, biofeedback Ss maintained greater relaxation during task performance than did control Ss. Across groups, Type A's performed significantly better than Type B's on difficult tasks, and although Type A biofeedback Ss had EMG levels as high as Type B controls for the actual duration of performance tasks, they maintained significantly lower EMG levels than either group prior to, between, and after performance tasks. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety and striate-muscle activation: Evidence from electromyographic pattern analysis.

Recorded electromyograph (EMGH) responses of 32 self-reported high- and low-anxious undergraduate females during a 15-min anticipation period followed by 5 min of 105-db binaural white noise stimulation. A computer-controlled scanning EMG sampled integrated surface EMG activity from a total of 8 muscle sites on the head, neck, and limbs. Results indicate that high-anxious Ss evidenced higher mean EMG levels than low-anxious Ss both preceding and during the stimulus period. Microanalysis of the within-Ss data arrays involving P-factoring on principal components provided detailed diachronic observations of striate-muscle action in trait-anxious Ss. Little evidence was obtained to support a general tension factor in either low-anxious or high-anxious Ss. Furthermore, no differences were observed in multiple-site covariance structures between the 2 groups. EMG elevations in the high-anxious Ss consisted of largely uncorrelated response bursts. Data mitigate prevalent conceptions of increased tonic muscular contraction during arousal and anxiety. Findings suggest that anxiety reflects activation more than immobilization or defense. (92 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electromyograph biofeedback as a relaxation technique: A critical appraisal and reassessment.

A review of the frontalis EMG biofeedback (BF) literature demonstrates that EMG BF compares favorably with other relaxation procedures, although some reviewers have prematurely concluded that alternative relaxation treatments are preferable on a cost–benefit basis. Previous statements about the efficacy of BF have oversimplified the data, however, and have failed to recognize sufficiently that reliable effects are associated with different relaxation procedures and specific trait dimensions operating for certain groups of Ss. Definitive statements regarding the efficacy of EMG BF and other relaxation treatment modalities need to acknowledge the full complexity of the data and await further research on specific person–treatment interactions. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electromyographic patterns associated with nonnutritive sucking in 11–13-day-old rat pups.

Three experiments used an EMG technique to measure the frequency, duration, and intensity of nonnutritive sucking (NNS) in 56 11–13 day old Wistar pups. Ss were separated from their mothers for 2–6 or 20–24 hrs and then allowed to suckle an anesthetized dam for up to 3 hrs without receiving any milk. Jaw-muscle EMG and nipple detachments were recorded. EMG patterns representing 2 discrete modes of sucking were reliably discerned, as were changes in overall intensity of EMG. 20–24 hr separated Ss engaged in more frequent NNS bouts and bouts of longer duration than 2–6 hr separated Ss. Ss separated by 20–24 hrs also engaged in a mode of NNS not seen in 2–6 hr separated Ss. Overall EMG intensity was higher and frequency of nipple detachments was lower in Ss separated for 20–24 hrs. In both groups, but particularly the 20–24 hr Ss, frequency of some NNS patterns decreased as the length of the "dry" suckling increased. EMG intensity also decreased over time in both groups, and frequency of nipple detachments increased in 2–6 hr separated Ss. Data indicate that some aspects of NNS are highly labile and respond to variations of both deprivation from the mother and nutritive deprivation. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specific and nonspecific effects in the biofeedback treatment of tension headache: 3-Year follow-up.

In a previous study by the present authors (see record 1980-32946-001), 39 tension headache sufferers were assigned either to no treatment, standard biofeedback, or 1 of 2 biofeedback control procedures to test factors mediating the effectiveness of biofeedback. No differences were found between the 3 biofeedback conditions, indicating that learned reductions of frontal EMG activity had little to do with the observed treatment effect. Three-year follow-up collected from 28 of the 39 original Ss revealed high levels of maintenance for all biofeedback groups but again showed that reductions in EMG activity were unrelated to long-term maintenance. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that cognitive and behavioral factors may underlie biofeedback's treatment effect. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)