Social Landscape Metrics: Measures for Understanding Place Values from Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGIS)

Landscape metrics are used in landscape ecology to quantify landscape characteristics related to structure, function and change by quantifying the structure and distributional pattern of landscape elements such as plants, animals and other physical landscape features. To date, there has been little published research on landscape metrics that include social perceptions of landscape. In this paper, we introduce the concept of social landscape metrics that quantify human perceptions of place resulting from the use of public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS). We present and explain a set of social landscape metrics that measure the composition and configuration of human perceptions of landscapes from multiple study areas using empirical data from PPGIS studies. We distinguish between two classes of social landscape metrics, boundary and inductive, present methods to develop them, and describe some of their applications to land use planning and management. We conclude with a discussion of future research needs for advancing knowledge about social landscape metrics.     

Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

Spatiotemporal changes of landscape pattern in response to urbanization

The combined method of urban gradient analysis and landscape metrics in analyzing the changes of landscape pattern has been widely applied since its introduction by Luck and Wu (2002). In order to address the temporal dynamics of landscape change, this study integrated transect analysis with temporal trend analysis and specifically discussed how changes of residential pattern are related to forms of urban growth. Using Dane County, Wisconsin, USA as an example, a 60 km transect passing through the City of Madison was set up to represent a continuum of rural-urban-rural landscapes. Changes of landscape pattern from 1968 to 2000 were analyzed by FRAGSTATS with four metrics—percentage of landscape (PLAND), Shannon's evenness index (SHEI), patch density (PD), and mean patch size (MPS). Findings from metric analyses revealed that the degree of land-use diversity and landscape fragmentation is positively related to the degree of urbanization.Specifically, at the class-level, residential land-use type shows the strongest positive relationship to the degree of urbanization in all of the class-level metrics adopted. Changes in residential land-use pattern were further analyzed with the number of housing units. The analyses revealed that there are different patterns of residential development along the transect in the study area—with the core urban area expanding outward in a contiguous manner while the rural areas have scattered development. This study demonstrated the additional insights into landscape change by integrating the spatial and the temporal perspectives and by targeting the forms of residential developments.     

Spatiotemporal Landscape Pattern Change in Response to Future Urbanisation in Maricopa County,Arizona, USA

Urban growth combined with increasing population modifies landscape structure and functions at various scales. Identifying the accumulated effects of urbanisation on landscape composition and configuration over time is crucial to anticipate the functional change of altered landscape and to gauge landscape sustainability. Focusing on critical ecosystems, this study aims to understand how landscape patterns will evolve in response to the proposed development plans in Maricopa County, Arizona. Two primary GIS data layers were developed including the urban ecosystem layer with different natural land cover types (e.g. desert shrub, grassland, green space, and agriculture) and the urbanisation layer with residential, commercial, and recreational land use. To examine the spatiotemporal pattern change, urbanisation scenarios were designed with a basis on development status and implementation certainty, along with landscape metrics calculation. The findings demonstrated how the landscape metrics behave differently across different urbanisation conditions and which type of landscape will be most likely sensitive to future urbanisation processes. The study provides significant implications for landscape planning and guides planners to seek more optimal alternatives among various policy decisions.     

Evaluation of the ecological efficiency of landscape protection in areas of different protection status. A case study from Poland

Poland ratified the ELC in 2004 and by 2015 the existing forms of landscape protection constituted a major tool for its implementation. The ecological efficiency of landscape protection in Poland in terms of the different kinds of protection status was evaluated. The main goal was to get general information about the dynamics of the changes in the landscape fragmentation process and the relationships between the landscape changes and the level of landscape protection on a national scale. A set of metrics using a CLC data-set at four points in time: 1990, 2000, 2006 and 2012 were examined. The metrics calculations were completed using FRAGSTATS 4.2.1 and Statistica software. Results confirmed that landscape protection depends on the level of protection assigned to it (the regime). In addition, it was demonstrated that the forms of the protected landscape areas are characterised by lower efficiency and higher landscape fragmentation dynamics when compared to those in unprotected areas. It also turns out that the newly established protection types such as Natura 2000 areas are characterised as insufficient tools to efficiently counteract growing human pressure. Although over 40% of the area of Poland falls under protection, merely 3% of this is characterised by a high efficiency of landscape protection.     

基于景观特征评估划定国土尺度景观 规划管理的空间单元

景观规划管理的视角需要从最优美、最有价值区域的保护，转向对国土全域“自然系统与人类行为”关系的协调。景观链接了“自然”与“空间”，生态系统服务功能的保护与强化必须从景观单元的尺度进行更为整体的思考。“通过景观(单元)规划”探讨了景观为更广泛的空间规划提供综合框架的潜力，景观特征评估则提供了将复杂连续的景观划分为多尺度、实体、可识别的整体空间单元的系统方法。通过对景观概念的系统梳理与阐释，论述了景观保护方法的转变、景观单元的空间意义，以及景观特征评估作为多尺度景观单元划分的先进方法在英格兰的全面实践与应用。     

区域视角下云南腾冲村落景观特征及演变研究

借助GIS空间技术手段,运用景观因子的定性分析和量化的系统聚类分析相结合,以云南省腾冲市传统村落为例,通过分层级方式探讨区域视角下村落景观特征及其演变的研究方法。结果表明：（1）村落景观特征可从全境尺度和聚落尺度两个层级入手,不同层级具有不同景观构成要素、形态与特征;（2）腾冲区域村落景观可划分为6个一级景观单元和13个二级景观单元;（3）腾冲村落景观存在区域相似性和渐变性,核心区与边缘区、坝区与山区存在明显差异性;（4）现有村落景观格局受到地理环境与交通线路、边疆治理与移民宽乡、民族迁徙与文化涵化、宗族社会与宗教民俗等共同作用。同时,为腾冲区域传统村落的整体连片保护提供研究支撑和建议。     

Habitat Suitability and Landscape Structure: A Maximum Entropy Approach in a Mediterranean Area

Species distribution models have recently become important tools in ecological research. Prediction of suitable habitats for threatened and endangered species is essential for the conservation and management of their native habitats. A landscape scale approach is relevant for biodiversity conservation since landscape planning and management are generally conducted at wide spatial scales, focusing on areas with complex landscape configuration as a consequence of human activities. The aims of this study were to test a maximum entropy approach (Maxent) to the development of a niche-based model for species of conservation interest and to relate this model to landscape structure metrics. The results obtained here showed a good predictive power of Maxent for the three target species and highlighted the importance of landscape structure analysis for the detection of patterns of habitat suitability. Moreover, this work stressed that combining classical environmental information with landscape structure in analysing habitat suitability for species of conservation interest may be used to guide conservation efforts and landscape management practices.     

Relationship between landscape visual attributes and spatial pattern indices: A test study in Mediterranean-climate landscapes

The analysis of the relationships between landscape visual quality and landscape structural properties is an active area of environmental perception research. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between landscape spatial pattern and the rating of visual aesthetic quality. Eight landscape photographs were evaluated for 11 visual attributes by 98 respondents. The scores obtained for these 11 attributes were subjected to principal components analysis in order to summarize the qualities used by the respondents and thus determine their visual preferences. For each photograph, three window sizes were defined (with respect to a landcover map) to cover the different areas corresponding to the visual field (foreground, mid-ground and background). The landscape spatial structure for each window was analyzed using spatial metrics. The correlation between each dimension and the spatial pattern indices of the landscape were then calculated. Positive correlations were obtained between visual aesthetic quality and a number of landscape pattern indices. The results suggest that landscape heterogeneity might be an important factor in determining visual aesthetic quality.     

The influence of forest management on landscape structure in the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan

Comprehension of historical changes in landscape and forest management will provide valuable insights into current ecosystems and biodiversity and will support future management decisions and conservation strategies. This study clarified changes in the forest landscape of the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan from 1947 to 1997. We used a geographic information system to reconstruct past forest landscapes at four times (1947, 1962, 1975, and 1997) based on interpretation of aerial photographs and landscape metrics calculated using the FRAGSTATS software for spatial pattern analysis. Our results showed that secondary forests, the dominant land use in 1947, decreased greatly in area and became more fragmented, whereas coniferous plantations, which occupied approximately 20% of the total land area in 1947, became the dominant land use (almost 40% of the total land) by 1997. The young coniferous plantations have been established at increasing elevations over time and were mainly created by conversion of secondary forest until 1975. The number of young coniferous plantations and their patch spacing depended on the type of forest management. In the study area, landscape structure changed in response to changes in management of national forests, especially the expansion of afforestation in the 1950s and 1960s and changes in harvesting systems.     

Urbanisation-related Landscape Change in Space and Time along Spatial Gradients near Roads: A Case Study from Estonia

The quantification of landscape patterns and the changes caused by suburbanisation processes is essential to the understanding of the causes and consequences of the human-induced spatial patterns. By using spatial gradients along main roads near cities, we attempted to quantify the influence of roads on the suburbanisation process and settlement structure in Estonia. The rapid suburbanisation process that has been influenced by the revision of planning principles and land reform has created preconditions for creation of scattered housing areas around cities. Landscape metrics gradients were calculated for three roads leading out of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. Results showed that the urbanisation-related fragmentation of landscapes decreases with distance from the road. The number of buildings is highest between 100 and 500 meters from the road. Distance from the city causes less difference in fragmentation than distance from the road. Because of the land reform and revision of planning principles that took place after the Soviet period, suburbanisation has not, however, been symmetrical in relation to roads. We could not detect significant in-filling near the roads and therefore this should be under more serious consideration in planning process in the future.     

Landscape’s physiognomic structure: conceptual development and practical applications

The past decade has seen an increased interest in approaches for the identification and assessment of landscapes, which has been, in part, a response to the European Landscape Convention (ELC). In this article, we review landscape physiognomy, an important component of the Polish approach to the assessment and identification of its landscape. We address the relevance of physiognomy both in relation to the ELC and to the landscape character assessments approach, and then explore the theoretical basis of landscape physiognomic structure. We also expand the existing classification of landscape interiors; this is followed by combining three approaches: (1) physical geography in the field of comprehensive classification of natural landscapes; (2) landscape ecology studies on the spatial structure of land cover patches against the ‘landscape matrix’ and (3) the theory of landscape interiors. Presented ideas create the outline of the concept of landscape’s physiognomic structure.     

Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

基于景观适宜性的山地公园植物景观 评价研究——以贵阳黔灵山公园为例

以贵阳市黔灵山公园为研究对象,选取24个植物景观单元。以生态适宜、景观适宜、社会适宜为准则层,建立山地公园植物景观景观适宜性评价体系。运用主成分分析确定评价指标权重,克服以往植物景观评价赋权重的主观性,建立山地公园植物景观景观适宜性评价模型,得到不同植物景观的景观适宜性指数。结果表明:黔灵山公园在适宜范围内的植物景观有10个,占评价单元总数的41.6%,适宜性较差的有14个,乔灌比(数量)在1:11.2～1.7:1之间的植物群落景观适宜性较好。根据评价结果,提出了3点山地公园植物景观营建策略,以期为山地公园植物景观评价及营建提供理论指导。     

景观干扰对乡村半自然生境植物多样性的 影响分析

乡村半自然生境植物多样性的影响分析,有助于推 动乡村生态景观高质量发展。村以下尺度乡村植物多样性研究 存在生境类型分析不全面、景观影响因子单一化、定量干扰机 制不深入等问题。在南京江宁西南部乡村地区,采用逐步回归 模型和广义加性模型,探讨了多种景观干扰对6类乡村半自然 生境植物多样性的影响,并提出了基于乡村植物多样性维持的 景观响应策略。结果表明：1)乡村景观格局、景观管理强度 和类型等对不同半自然生境植物多样性产生了显著影响,其综 合解释度约为10%~50%,小规模林斑、连接度高的半自然生 境、小面积池塘(<0.8hm2 )、茶田景观粗放管理方式、乡土 树种混交林等对植物多样性的正向促进作用显著;2)在所有显 著性指标中,斑块面积、斑块隔离度对各类半自然生境植物多 样性的影响最为突出,是驱动乡村植物多样性变化的重要景观 因素。     

蓝绿空间景观格局对城市热岛的影响

城市热岛是城市环境中的典型问题。景观指数影响范围的空间异质性很少被理解。为了解决这个问题,拟采用多尺度地理加权回归模型(MGWR)来分析景观指数,归一化差值植被指数(NDVI)与地表温度(LST)之间的相互关系。结果显示,和普通最小二乘法回归和地理加权回归相比较,MGWR揭示了不同景观指数的空间影响尺度,具有更接近真实值的拟合效果。增加绿地和水体景观百分比及NDVI能够很好地缓解LST,其他景观指数则与LST的关系在不同的位置呈现正或负相关,需在特定位置进行优化才能有效地缓解LST。总的来说,形状简单且聚集分布的较大绿地斑块和形状复杂且较小的绿地斑块,以及在大多数情况下形状复杂、连通性强的水体景观更利于缓解LST。     

基于森林景观恢复策略的庄园遗产景观设计探寻——以荷兰海德兰省巴克塞比克地区为例

庄园遗产景观是指包含花园和农业用地的历史乡村庄园集群。在气候变化、工业发展和快速城市化的背景下,庄园遗产景观正面临水生态环境失衡、空间碎片化和文化特征消失等挑战,而这些挑战只能从区域规划尺度去应对。以荷兰海德兰省巴克塞比克地区为例,在考虑地方景观异同的同时,以景观自身特性为基底,结合未来发展趋势,进一步诠释了一种旨在提升庄园遗产景观韧性的多尺度景观设计方法。发现森林砍伐为地域空间变化的主要因素之一,它对水系统与生态多样性造成了负面影响。基于在区域尺度上对庄园遗产景观历史发展的分析,森林景观恢复(FLR)作为主要设计策略,旨在从不同尺度上对“退化的”景观进行生态功能修复并提升人类福祉。这种新的空间设计方法将在不同尺度上促进文化遗产景观发展。     

农林复合土地利用模式与农业文化遗产景观可持续性的相关性

在当今单一土地利用造成危机的背景下,农林复合土地利用模式对于农业文化遗产景观可持续发展的价值值得关注.深入研究农林复合土地利用模式在中国重要农业文化遗产系统(China National Important Agricultural Heritage System,China-NIAHS)中的重要性,及其对China-...     

城市森林公园景观美景度评价及影响 因素分析

当前，对城市森林公园美景度影响因素的体系构建及要素量化还处于探索阶段，对访客群体差异性及其机理研究不足。以南昌市瑶湖郊野森林公园为例进行景观美景度研究，对上述问题进行了深入分析，为城市森林公园景观设计质量提升提供科学依据。分层选取4种类型40个景观样本，分别进行大众群体评价和设计要素细分。以正态分位数法计算每个样本的美景度值(SBE)。采取逐步回归分析法和最佳子集分析法，分别建立美景度值和影响因子的评价模型，结果如下。1)从类别看，美景度排序为：道路景观>建筑及小品景观>水体景观>植被景观。2)10个评价因子均与景观美景度显著相关，其中“设施协调感”关联性最强。3)评价因子对美景度的影响程度排序为：设施协调感>空间尺度感>场景均衡性>画面联想性>景观主从性>形式统一感。4)不同性别群体对比，女性评价均值高于男性，离散系数低于男性。5)不同居住地和受教育程度对景观审美均产生影响。结论表明，公园环境美景度与研究所界定的景观设计评价因子有直接关联，但不同的评价因子对美景度的影响程度不同。6个评价因子对环境营造和设计方法有着直接的启示意义。通过逐...     

‘This is not the jungle,this is my barbecho’: semantics of ethnoecological landscape categories in the Bolivian Amazon

Through a case study with Spanish-speaking Takana indigenous people in the Bolivian Amazon, we explored ethnoecological landscape categories, including their ecological underpinnings, cultural significance and hierarchical organisation. Using field walks and interviews with consultants, we elicited 156 ethnoecological landscape categories, 60 of which related to vegetation types. However, sorting exercises with landscape photographs revealed that vegetation was not a guiding organisation principle. Takana consultants organised ethnoecological landscape categories into geographical regions that contained different landscape features, including vegetation units, topographical or hydrological features. Comparing the documented ethnoecological landscape categorisation with a published scientific botanical classification of vegetation units, we observed some important conceptual differences, which in turn have implications for the management of such landscapes.