Modeling Pore Pressure, Moisture, and Temperature in High-Strength Concrete Columns Exposed to Fire

A mathematical and computational model to stimulate a two-dimensional thermal response of high-strength concrete columns subjected to fire is presented. Contours as well as history and distribution profiles for temperature, moisture content, and pore pressure are illustrated as model output. The model's predictions are validated against ASTM E119 fire test data from a high-strength concrete (HSC) column test and are subsequently compared to output based on a hydrocarbon pool fire (ASTM E1529) exposure. The model's handling of input fires other than ASTM E119 demonstrates its usefulness and adaptability to a performance-based design environment. Results from parametric studies reveal the importance of performing thermophysical material property tests under fire exposures similar to those at which full-scale specimens are to be tested. The influence of size effects on data obtained from small- and large-scale fire test programs is discussed.     

Predicting protected steel member fire endurance using spread-sheet programs

The simple method of computing the time-temperature response of protected steel members that has been recommended by the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) is presented in this paper. The method is a one-dimensional heat flow approach that explicitly accounts for the thickness and thermal properties of the insulation as well as the area and perimeter of the steel section.Two different cases are recognized. In the simpler, the heat required to increase the temperature of the insulation is small and can be ignored. This will be the case for sprayed mineral fiber fire protection. In other cases, a large amount of heat is absorbed by the insulation and it must explicitly be taken into account. This will be true for gypsum plaster, concrete, or masonry fire protection.A time-step approach is used, in which thermal equilibrium is considered during each of several short time intervals. This leads to repetitive calculations in a format ideally suited to use in a spreadsheet program in a microcomputer. The time-temperature course of the fire is explicitly taken into account, and the fire may follow the ASTM E-119 curve or any other curve.Three examples are presented, and comparisons of measured and computed fire endurances are made, with reasonably good agreement found.     

Fire resistance of solid steel columns

The resistance of massive steel columns is significantly better than for ordinary steel columns because of their much smaller aspect ratio. Under full service load they can attain a fire resistance of greater than 30 minutes for an ISO DIS 834 fire without any fire protection, and more than 90 minutes with a thin intumescent coating. Results of numerical thermal, and load bearing analysis, material investigations, and fire tests are summarized for practical application in fire engineering.     

Experimental study on the fire resistance of steel columns protected with fire boards

The thickness of the fire protection material of steel columns should be determined to guarantee the load-bearing capacity of the steel columns during a fire. In Korean standards, the strength capacity of steel columns is evaluated by measuring the axial deflection or surface temperature of only one H-section of 300x300x10x15 or similar dimensions in a fire test. Once the thickness of a fire protection material is approved, it can be applied to any section, regardless of the size and shape. However, in order to properly protect a building from a severe fire, the appropriate thickness of the fire protection material should be determined with consideration of the section factor, size and shape of steel columns in accordance with building regulations. This paper describes a series of full-scale and small-scale fire tests which were conducted on H-section and Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) steel columns protected with glass fiber reinforced gypsum (GRG) boards and cellulose fiber reinforced cement (CRC) boards. The main factors of the fire tests were the section factor, the section shape and the thickness of the fire protection materials. Simple equations to predict the thickness of a fire protection material of steel sections, accounting for the shape factor and the required fire resistance, are proposed. A comparative study on the efficiency between the newly developed columns with two types of fire boards and the conventional columns with a combination of spray and gypsum boards was also conducted, and results are reported herein.     

钢管高强混凝土轴压柱耐炎极限的试验研究

通过对5个圆形截面钢管高强度混凝土（以下简称钢管高强混凝土）柱的耐火试验，研究钢管高强混凝土柱在标准温升曲线下的力学性能和耐火极限。试验研究结果表明，钢管高强混凝土柱具有较好的耐火性能，在柱子外围只需进行适应的防火涂料保护，即可达到《高层民用建筑设计防火规范》（GB50045-95）对柱结构所要求的耐火极限。     

轻质防护的装配钢柱耐火性能试验研究

为研究装配式钢结构柱的耐火性能,开展不同壁厚的方钢管柱在不同防火保护方式、不同荷载比、轴心及偏心受力情况下的耐火性能试验,分析了装配钢柱火灾下的试验现象、破坏形态,探讨了钢柱壁厚对升温的影响、防火保护对耐火极限的影响、钢柱变形特点及耐火极限,对装配式钢结构防火保护提出建议。     

矩形钢管混凝土柱的耐火性能和抗火设计方法

进行了8个轴心受压或偏心受压矩形钢管混凝土柱,按ISO—834和GB/T9978—1999规定的标准升温曲线升温作用下耐火极限的实验研究。实验结果表明,截面尺寸和防火保护层厚度对构件耐火极限的影响较大,而荷载偏心率的影响则相对较小。分析结果还表明,国家规范GB50045—95中钢结构柱防火保护层厚度的确定方法不适合于矩形钢管混凝土柱。在大规模参数分析结果的基础上,提出了矩形钢管混凝土柱耐火极限及防火保护层厚度的简化计算公式,公式的计算结果与数值计算结果和实验结果均吻合较好,且总体上偏于安全。本文的研究成果可为有关矩形钢管混凝土工程进行抗火设计时提供参考。     

高温下钢管约束型钢混凝土柱的受力性能

火灾下无防火保护的结构构件温度会迅速上升,从而造成钢材和混凝土的强度明显下降。为了研究火灾下钢管约束型钢混凝土柱的受力性能,考虑火灾下钢管约束型钢混凝土柱的不均匀温度分布及温度对材料力学性能的影响,提出了火灾下受轴心荷载作用的钢管约束型钢混凝土柱承载力的计算方法。利用有限元软件ABAQUS对提出的计算方法进行了验证,结果吻合较好。进而采用该计算方法对影响高温下承载力的参数进行了分析,研究表明:随着构件截面尺寸的增加以及混凝土强度和钢材强度的提高,构件的承载力逐渐增加,而钢管壁厚的改变对承载力并无太大影响。利用有限元软件ABAQUS分析了荷载比、构件尺寸、钢管壁厚等因素对构件耐火极限的影响,发现耐火极限随着荷载比和钢管壁厚的增加而减小,随着构件尺寸的增加而增大。     

Capacity reduction and fire load factors for LRFD of steel columns exposed to fire

Capacity reduction and fire load factors corresponding to the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) format are developed for steel columns exposed to fire. A sample deterministic framework to determine fire and steel temperatures and the capacity of steel columns is adopted for this analysis to structure the methodology. A specific number of parameters that affect the structural response, including the fire load, ratio of floor area to the total area of the fire compartment, opening factor, thermal absorptivity of compartment boundaries, thickness, density and thermal conductivity of insulation, dead load, and live load are taken as random variables. Mechanical and sectional properties of steel (e.g., yield strength, cross-sectional area, etc.), are also considered to be random variables. The effect of active fire protection systems (e.g., sprinklers, smoke and heat detectors, fire brigade, etc.), in reducing the probability of occurrence of a severe fire is included. Given the choice of framework and based on detailed reliability analyses, it is shown that the capacity reduction and fire load factors should vary depending on the presence of active fire protection systems in a building.     

Behavior of steel columns in a fire with partial damage to fire protection

An experimental study is performed on two specimens in a furnace to investigate the fire behaviour of steel columns with partial loss of fire protection. The steel columns are connected by flush end-plates at two ends and the axial load is kept constant with a load ratio of 0.55 subjected to an elevation of temperature. The specimens are protected with 20 mm thickness of fire protection. The damaged length of fire protection is 7% of the complete length of the column for specimen S-1 and 14% for S-2 at the two ends of the steel columns. The temperature of atmosphere around the specimens in the furnace is assumed to follow the ISO834 standard temperature and the temperatures and displacements are measured in the experiment. The temperature distribution along the steel column is modelled by finite element analysis and compared with the measured results. A continuum model is presented to predict the ultimate load capacity or critical temperature of the columns with fire protection damage. Analyses are carried out on the specimens and compared with the experiment. Experimental and analytical results showed that the fire resistance of steel columns with partial damage to the fire protection is reduced. The damage length of the fire protection has a great effect on the fire resistance of steel columns. The failure of the specimens mainly resulted from the buckling or yielding at the portion where the fire protection is damaged.     

Thermal bowing on steel columns embedded on walls under fire conditions

The contact of steel columns with building walls is responsible for huge thermal gradients within its cross-section during fire. Current regulatory codes for fire design of steel members provide a formulation to assess the load-bearing capacity of these members assuming uniform temperature through the cross-section; however, this is not what happens in the major part of the cases in real structures where the columns are embedded on walls. The walls on one hand will provide a temperature reduction on the columns, which is somehow favourable in terms of its fire resistance, on the other hand the differential heating on the columns cross-section may lead to unfavourable stresses (bending moments) responsible for instability (thermal bowing). Considering that the structural behaviour of columns is strongly dependent of the second order effects this is an important phenomenon which may lead to a significant reduction on its fire resistance. This paper presents the results of a numerical study to assess the influence of the differential heating on the fire design of steel columns. New interaction axial force–bending moment diagrams for non-uniformly heated H steel columns are proposed.     

钢管混凝土柱的防火保护层厚度

文章论述了在规范ISO834或GB9978-88规定的标准升温曲线升温作用下钢管混凝土柱耐火极限的影响因素,给出了不同耐火极限情况下防火保护层厚度的确定方法,说明了在进行钢管混凝土柱的抗火设计时,只需进行适当的防火涂料保护,即可达到《高层民用建筑设计防火规范》（GB50045-95）对柱结构所要求的耐火极限。《高层民用建筑设计防火规范》（GB50045-95）中规定的对钢结构柱防火保护层厚度的确定方法不适合于钢管混凝土。     

Fire resistance of concrete encased steel columns under 3- and 4-side standard heating

Results from seven fire resistance experiments on concrete encased steel (CES) columns under standard fire exposure conditions are presented. The test parameters include column size, 3- and 4-side fire exposure, load intensity and load eccentricity. Data from the tests is utilized to study the effect of the aforementioned parameters on thermal and structural response of concrete encased steel columns. Test results show that CES columns have higher fire resistance under 3-side heating than that under 4-side heating. Also, load ratio and load eccentricity have a noticeable influence on the fire resistance of CES columns. In addition, spalling of the concrete decreases the fire resistance of CES columns. A comparison of measured fire resistance of CES columns with those predicted using current code provisions indicate that the current provisions may not be conservative in some situations.     

强约束轴心受压钢管柱耐火性能试验研究

为正确评估强约束钢管柱的耐火性能,利用自行研制的杆系结构构件温度轴力测量装置,采用恒载升温试验方法,设5级初应力水平,6种长细比,对30根Q345钢管柱进行试验研究,揭示轴心受压钢管柱在强约束下的耐火性能。试验结果表明:强约束钢管柱在温升作用下的温度应力相当大,对钢管柱破坏有决定性作用,在耐火设计与评估中必须考虑。钢管柱在高温作用下,破坏前其弹塑性性质较为明显。相同长细比的构件,在较高的初始应力水平作用下,极限承载力大、温度应力小、临界温度低;反之相反。在相同初应力水平下,长细比对强约束钢管柱的极限承载力和温度应力的影响并不敏感,但长细比大的试件为失稳破坏,破坏后变形很大;长细比较小的试件为强度破坏,破坏后变形较小。以试验数据为基础给出两端固定Q345钢管柱的下限临界温度回归计算公式,可用于火灾中约束刚度不变的钢结构耐火设计与评估。     

三面及四面受火钢骨混凝土柱的耐火性能

在标准火灾条件下进行钢骨混凝土柱的耐火试验。以几何尺寸、三面或四面受火、荷载大小及偏心为参数,研究其对钢骨混凝土耐火性能的影响。结果表明:钢骨混凝土柱三面受火条件下的耐火性能高于四面受火;载荷比和荷载偏心的影响可以忽略;混凝土的剥落降低了柱耐火性能。将试验结果与现有规范进行对比可知,某些条件下,按规范计算的耐火性能可能偏高。     

圆钢管及钢管混凝土柱的抗火设计

分别对圆钢管、钢管混凝土、中空夹层钢管混凝土柱进行了抗火设计,并对结果进行比较分析。结果表明,在较高荷载比下柱的耐火极限不能满足实际要求,必须进行防火保护。在相同条件下,耐火极限从大到小排序为:圆钢管混凝土、中空夹层钢管混凝土、钢管柱。在一级耐火等级下,钢管混凝土柱和中空夹层钢管混凝土柱需要厚涂型钢结构防火涂料的厚度可比钢管柱分别少55%和18%以上。随着荷载比的减小或截面尺寸的增加,柱的耐火极限提高,需要的保护层厚度减小。对于钢管混凝土柱,若采用水泥砂浆保护层,其厚度是防火涂料的3倍及以上。     

防火涂料局部脱落的钢管混凝土柱温度场有限元分析

实际工程中,钢管混凝土柱表面的防火涂料可能会发生局部脱落,将影响火灾下构件的温度分布,进一步影响构件的耐火极限。为获得防火涂料局部脱落的钢管混凝土柱温度分布规律,为此类构件的抗火设计提供参考,采用ABAQUS建立了涂料局部脱落构件的温度场有限元模型,分析了构件截面形状系数和长度、防火涂料厚度和热工参数、涂料脱落位置和脱落长度等对构件温度的影响。分析结果表明,圆形与方形构件的温度分布类似,前者温度略高于后者。涂料在构件两端脱落和跨中脱落的工况可根据对称性简化为一端脱落。涂料脱落仅影响沿柱长有限区域内的温度分布,随着升温时间的增大、涂料脱落长度的增大、涂料导热系数的减小、涂料厚度的增大以及构件截面形状系数的减小,该区域长度增大。     

装配式模块建筑组合钢柱耐火性能试验研究

采用耐火试验炉对装配式模块建筑四柱组合的钢结构构件开展不同防火保护条件下的试验研究,分析了模块建筑组合钢柱在火灾下的试验现象、升温曲线、变形特点及破坏形态,获取了模块建筑组合钢柱的耐火极限,以此对模块建筑组合钢柱的防火保护构造提出了设计建议。结果表明：8 mm厚的组合钢柱构件,在双层20 mm高性能防火石膏板的保护下,耐火极限不低于2.50 h,满足二级耐火等级建筑要求;在双层12 mm厚纤维增强硅酸板和60 mm厚岩棉的保护下,耐火极限不低于3.00 h,满足一级耐火等级建筑要求;在三层高性能防火石膏板（15 mm+20 mm+20 mm）的保护下,耐火极限不低于4.00 h。     

Fire resistance of concrete filled square steel tube columns subjected to eccentric axial load

The fire resistance of concrete filled square steel tube columns (CFT columns) without fire protection under a constant axial load has been previously examined. The purpose of this present study is to investigate the fire resistance of CFT columns when they are subjected to combined loads. This paper presents a nonlinear thermal stress analysis method for predicting the mechanical behavior and fire resistance of CFT columns under eccentric axial load (axial load and flexure moment). This method is based on the stress-strain characteristics of materials at high temperatures and on the mechanics of column deflection curves. From the results of the developed computational technique, it was demonstrated that as the yield stress and rigidity of the steel tube rapidly decreased for approximately 30 minutes, the decrease of flexure moment capacity increased significantly more than that of the axial load capacity. In addition, as the load eccentricity ratio increased, the fire resistance time drastically decreased. However, the time of maximum expansion under eccentric axial load was independent of the load eccentricity ratio.     

Response of steel beam–columns exposed to fire

Steel beams when exposed to fire develop significant restraint forces and often behave as beam–columns. The response of such restrained steel beams under fire depends on many factors including fire scenario, load level, degree of restraint at the supports, and high-temperature properties of steel. A set of numerical studies, using finite element computer program ANSYS, is carried out to study the fire response of steel beam–columns under realistic fire, load and restraint scenarios. The finite element model is validated against experimental data, and the importance of high-temperature creep on the fire response of steel beam–columns is illustrated. The validated model is used to carry out a set of parametric studies. Results from the parametric studies indicate that fire scenario, load level, degree of end-restraint and high-temperature creep have significant influence on the behavior of beams under fire conditions. The type of fire scenario plays a critical role in determining the fire response of the laterally-unrestrained steel beam within a space subframe. Increased load level leads to higher catenary forces resulting in lower fire resistance. Rotational restraint enhances the fire resistance of a laterally-unrestrained steel beam, while the axial restraint has detrimental effect on fire resistance.